key theories explained + evaluations Flashcards
bioecological systems theory
The Bioecological Model, developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner, explains human development as the result of interactions between an individual and multiple layers of environmental systems. It emphasizes that parenting and child relationships are influenced by various contextual factors.
Key Components of the Model:
Microsystem – The immediate environment (e.g., family, caregivers, peers, school) where direct interactions between parents and children occur.
Mesosystem – The connections between different microsystems, such as the interaction between parents and teachers affecting a child’s development. this is where 2 microsystems interact to create a new level of influence on a childs development.
Exosystem – Indirect environmental influences, like social welfare systems- parental workplace conditions or community resources, that impact the child’s upbringing. e.g. does the parents job offer flexible working, does the parent enjoy the job
Macrosystem – The broader cultural, societal, and policy-based influences on parents and parental roles which influence a child (e.g., social norms, economic conditions, laws). e.g. Covid 19 restrictions and the influence of this
Chronosystem (added in later on)– The role of time and life transitions, such as parental divorce or major life changes, in shaping child development. Our past experiences can influence who we are. this captures that our experiences of the world and are not static. e.g. puberty, divorce
This model highlights that parenting is not only about direct parent-child interactions but also shaped by societal, economic, and cultural factors.
all these aspects influence children’s development
evaluation of bioecological systems theory
why it is good-
- helped us understand influences on child development
- helped us understand the role of context and the environment
- influential because it provided us with a unique structure, which helps structure research and studies!
- acknowledging that the child has a very important role in their own development
✅ Holistic Approach – The model considers multiple levels of influence on child development, recognizing the importance of both direct and indirect factors.
✅ Real-World Applicability – Used in education, social work, and parenting interventions to design policies that support child development.
✅ Acknowledges Change Over Time – The Chronosystem accounts for life transitions and historical context, making the model dynamic.
✅ Emphasizes Interaction – Unlike earlier ecological models, Bronfenbrenner later incorporated the Process-Person-Context-Time (PPCT) model, which highlights how interactions shape development over time (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006).
❌ Descriptive, Not Predictive – The model explains influences but does not predict specific outcomes for children.
❌ Complex and Hard to Test – The multi-layered nature makes it difficult to isolate variables and test the model empirically.
❌ Neglects Biological Factors – While it acknowledges genetics and temperament, it does not deeply explore biological influences on development (Tudge et al., 2009).
❌ Culture-Specific Limitations – The model is based on Western perspectives and may not fully account for differences in collectivist vs. individualist cultures.
evolutionary psychological theory
Evolutionary Psychology Theory of Parenting and Child Relationships
The Evolutionary Psychology Theory of parenting and child relationships suggests that parental behaviors are shaped by natural selection to maximize reproductive success and the survival of offspring. It argues that parenting strategies have evolved to enhance children’s chances of survival and their ability to pass on genes to future generations.
Key Principles of the Theory
Parental Investment Theory (Trivers, 1972)
Parents allocate time, energy, and resources to their offspring based on reproductive costs and benefits.
Typically, mothers invest more due to pregnancy, breastfeeding, and child-rearing, while fathers may be more selective in their investment depending on paternity certainty.
Attachment and Survival
Secure parent-child attachment increases survival rates by ensuring protection, care, and learning opportunities.
Bowlby’s (1969) Attachment Theory aligns with this, suggesting that infants are biologically programmed to seek proximity to caregivers for survival.
Kin Selection and Inclusive Fitness (Hamilton, 1964)
Parents are more likely to invest in their biological children because they share genetic material.
This explains behaviors such as parental favoritism toward genetic offspring compared to stepchildren.
Differential Parental Investment
Parents adjust their investment based on factors like child health, birth order, and resource availability.
For example, in environments with scarce resources, parents may prioritize investment in children most likely to survive and reproduce.
Sex Differences in Parenting Strategies
Evolutionary theory explains why mothers tend to provide direct caregiving, while fathers may focus on resource provision or mate guarding.
In polygamous societies, men may invest less in individual offspring, instead favoring quantity over quality.
evaluation of evolutionary psychology theory-
✅ Strengths:
Explains why certain parenting behaviors (e.g., attachment, resource allocation, and parental favoritism) exist across cultures.
Supported by cross-cultural and animal studies showing consistent parental investment patterns.
Aligns with biological and genetic evidence on parenting instincts.
❌ Weaknesses:
Ignores social and cultural influences – Parenting is also shaped by societal norms, economic factors, and education.
Overemphasizes genetic determinism – Modern parenting involves adoption, step-parenting, and social bonds that challenge purely genetic explanations.
Does not fully explain individual differences – Not all parents follow evolutionary predictions; personal experiences and learning shape parenting styles.
social learning theory-
The Social Learning Theory (SLT), developed by Albert Bandura (1977), explains parenting and child development through observational learning, reinforcement, and modeling. It argues that children learn behaviors, values, and social norms by watching and imitating their parents and caregivers.
Key Principles of Social Learning Theory in Parenting
Observational Learning (Modeling)
Children observe and imitate the behaviors of their parents and other role models.
Example: A child who sees their parent expressing empathy toward others is likely to develop prosocial behaviors.
Vicarious Reinforcement
Children learn by observing the consequences of others’ actions.
If a parent praises a sibling for good behavior, the observing child is more likely to copy it to receive the same reward.
Direct Reinforcement and Punishment
Positive reinforcement: Rewarding a child for good behavior (e.g., praise, treats) increases the likelihood of repetition.
Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to encourage behavior (e.g., stopping nagging when homework is done).
Punishment: Discouraging undesirable behaviors through consequences (e.g., timeouts, loss of privileges).
Self-Efficacy Development
Parents help shape a child’s belief in their own abilities through encouragement and feedback.
If a child is consistently supported in learning new skills, they develop confidence in their abilities.
Reciprocal Determinism
Parenting is bi-directional:
A child’s behavior influences the parent’s response, and the parent’s actions shape the child’s future behaviors.
Example: A cooperative child elicits warmth and positive parenting, whereas a defiant child may trigger stricter discipline.
evaluation of social learning theory
✅ Strengths:
Empirical support – Many studies confirm that children learn through observation and reinforcement (Bandura, 1986).
Explains individual differences – Accounts for how children raised in the same environment can develop different behaviors based on what they observe and experience.
Practical applications – Used in parenting programs, behavior therapy, and educational settings to encourage positive child development.
❌ Weaknesses:
Underestimates biological influences – Ignores innate temperament, genetic predispositions, and brain development in shaping behavior.
Not all observed behaviors are imitated – Children may see negative behaviors but choose not to replicate them due to internal moral reasoning or lack of motivation.
Passive view of learning – Assumes children are shaped primarily by external influences rather than actively constructing their own understanding of the world.
human behavioural genetics theory-
The Human Behavioural Genetics Theory of Parenting explores how genetics and environment interact to shape parenting behaviors and child development. It is based on the idea that parenting is not only influenced by environmental factors but also by genetic predispositions of both parents and children.
Key Concepts
Genetic Influence on Parenting
Parents’ behaviors (e.g., warmth, discipline, responsiveness) are partly heritable.
Some aspects of parenting styles may be influenced by a parent’s own genetic traits, such as temperament or stress tolerance.
Child-Driven Effects (Evocative Gene-Environment Correlation)
A child’s genetic traits influence how parents respond to them.
Example: A highly active child may elicit more discipline and structure, while a calm, affectionate child may receive more nurturing and warmth.
Shared vs. Non-Shared Environmental Influences
Shared environment (e.g., household rules, parenting styles) affects all siblings but often has less influence on long-term personality.
Non-shared environment (e.g., unique interactions with parents, different peer influences) explains why even siblings raised in the same home can have different outcomes.
Passive Gene-Environment Correlation
Parents pass down both genes and environments that support certain behaviors.
Example: A parent who is naturally patient and empathetic may create a nurturing home, reinforcing those traits in the child.
Active Gene-Environment Correlation
As children grow, they actively seek environments that align with their genetic traits.
Example: A child genetically inclined toward sociability may seek social settings, reinforcing their outgoing personality.
How This Relates to Parenting
Parenting is not just a one-way process—children also influence how they are parented.
While parenting styles affect children, children’s traits (partly influenced by genetics) shape parental behavior in return.
This challenges the idea that parents alone “mold” their children and highlights the dynamic interplay between genetics and environment.
evaluate this model
A strength of this theory is that it is supported by twin and adoption studies, which show that parenting is not solely learned but also influenced by genetic factors. For example, research suggests that biological parents and their children share similarities in parenting style even when raised apart, highlighting a genetic component.
However, a limitation is that it underestimates the role of environmental influences. Social and cultural factors, such as socioeconomic status and education, also play a major role in shaping parenting behavior. Relying too much on genetics could lead to biological determinism, ignoring how parenting can change due to experiences and learning.
Additionally, research in this area often struggles to separate genetic effects from environmental influences because parents provide both genes and the home environment to their children, making it difficult to determine the exact cause of certain behaviors.
Despite these criticisms, this theory provides valuable insight into the complex interaction between nature and nurture in parenting.
5 marks for the behavioural genetics theory
Mcguire et al., 2012=
The Human Behavioral Genetics Theory of Parenting suggests that both genetics and environment shape parenting behaviors and child development. It highlights that parenting is not purely environmental but is also influenced by genetic predispositions of both parents and children.
One key concept is gene-environment correlations, which describe how genetics and environment interact. There are three types:
Passive correlation – Parents pass on both genes and an environment that supports their traits. For example, a naturally calm and empathetic parent may create a nurturing home.
Evocative correlation – A child’s traits influence parental responses. A highly active child may lead to more discipline, while a calm child may receive more warmth.
Active correlation – As children grow, they seek environments that match their genetic tendencies, reinforcing their traits (e.g., a sociable child actively seeking friendships).
This theory highlights that parenting is a two-way process—not only do parents influence children, but children’s genetic traits also shape how they are parented.
