Key terminology- research methods Flashcards
What is an experimental method?
This involves the manipulation of an independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable. Experiments may be laboratory, field, natural or quasi
What is a hypothesis?
A clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated. Stated at the outset of any study
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
This does not state the direction of the difference or relationship
What is an aim?
A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate, the purpose of the study
What is a directional hypothesis?
This states the direction of the difference or relationship
What are variables?
Any thing that can vary or change within an investigation. Variables are generally used in experiments to determine if changes in one thing result in changes to another
What is operationalism?
Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured
What is an independent variable?
Some aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher- or changes naturally- so the effect on the DV can be measure
What is a dependent variable?
The variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV should be caused by the change in the IV
What is an extraneous variable?
Any variable other than the independent variable, that may affect the dependent variable, if it is not controlled. EVs are essentially nuisance variables that do not vary systematically with the IV
What are confounding variables?
What are demand characteristics?
Any cue from the researcher or from the research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of an investigation. This may lead to a participant changing their behaviour within the research situation
What are investigator effects?
Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour (conscious or unconscious)on the research outcome (the DV). This may include everything from the design of the study to the selection of and interaction with, participants during the research process
What is randomisation?
The use of chance methods to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of experimental conditions
What is standardisation?
Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study
What is independent groups design?
Participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition
What are experimental designs?
The different ways in which participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions
What are repeated measures?
All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment
What is matched pairs design?
Pairs of participants are first matched on some variables that may affect the dependent variable. Then one member of the pair is assigned to Condition A and the other to Condition B
What is random allocation?
An attempt to control for participant variables in an independent groups design which ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other
What is counterbalancing?
An attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design: half the participants experience the conditions in one order and the other half in the opposite order
What is a field experiment?
An experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV
What is a laboratory experiment?
An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV, whilst maintaining strict control of extraneous variables
What is a natural experiment?
An experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there. The researcher records the effect on a DV they have decided on
What is a Quasi-experiment?
A study that is almost an experiment but lacks key ingredients. The IV has not been determined by anyone (the researcher or any other person)- the ‘variables’ simply exist, such as being old or young. Strictly speaking, this is not an experiment. DV may be naturally occurring or devised by the experimenter and measured in the field or a lab
What is bias?
In the context of sampling, when certain groups are over- or under- represented within the sample selected.
For instance, there may be too many young people or too many people of one ethnic origin in a sample.
This limits the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population
What are sampling techniques?
The method used to select people from the population
What is population?
A group of people who are the focus of the researcher’s interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn
What is a sample?
A group of people who take part in a research investigation. The sample is drawn from a target population and is presumed to be representative of that population, i.e. it stands ‘fairly’ for the population being studied
What is generalisation?
The extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the population. This is possible if the sample of participants is representative of the target population
What is a target population?
A subset of the general population
What are examples of sample populations?
random sample, systematic sample stratified sample, opportunity sample volunteer sample
What is a random sample?
A sophisticated form of sampling in which all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected
What is a systematic sample?
When every nth member of the target population is selected (e.g. every 3rd house on a street or every 5th pupil on a school register)
What is a stratified sample?
A sophisticated form of sampling in which the composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain subgroups (strata) within the target population or the wider population
What is an opportunity sample?
Given that representative samples of the target population are so difficult to obtain, many researchers simply decide to select anyone who happens to be willing and available. The researcher simply takes the chance to ask whoever is around at the time of their study (e.g. in the street as in the case of market research)
What is a volunteer sample?
This involves participants selecting themselves to be part of the sample
What is the BPS code of ethics?
A quasi-legal document produced by the British Psychological Society (BPS) that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and is not acceptable when dealing with participants. The code is built around four major principles: respect, competence, responsibility and integrity
What are ethical issues?
These arise when a conflict exists between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data
What are examples of ethical issues?
Informed consent, deception, protection from harm, privacy and confidentiality
What is informed consent?
This involves making participants aware of the aims of the research, the procedures, their rights (including the right to withdraw partway through the investigation), and also what their data will be used for.
Participants should then make an informed judgement whether or not to take part without being coerced or feeling obliged
What does deception mean?
Deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at any stage of the investigation
There are times when this can be seen as acceptable e.g.
What is protection from harm?
Participants should not be placed at any more risk than they would be in their daily lives and should be protected from physical and psychological harm
What is privacy and confidentiality?
Participants have the right to control information about themselves. This is the right of privacy. This extends to the area where the study took place such that institutions or geographical locations are not named. If this is invaded then confidentiality should be protected
Confidentiality refers to our right, enshrined in law under the Data Protection Act, to have any personal data protected
What are the different ways to obtain consent?
Presumptive consent, prior general consent and retrospective consent
What is presumptive consent?
Rather than getting consent from the participants themselves, a similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable. If the group agrees, then consent of the original participants is presumed
What is prior general consent?
Participants give their permission to take part in a number of different studies- including one that will involve deception. By consenting, participants are effectively consenting to being deceived
What is a pilot study?
A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted.
What are examples of self-report methods?
Interviews, questionnaires
What happens in a double-blind procedure?
Neither participants nor the researcher who conducts study is aware of the aims of the investigation (often a third party conducts the investigation without knowing its main purpose
What is a single-blind procedure?
Participants are not aware of the aims of the investigation but the researcher who conducts the study is
What is an experimental group?
The group that receives the real drug
What is a control group?
The group that receives the placebo
What is a naturalistic observation?
Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur
What is controlled observation?
Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment, i.e. one where some variables are managed
What is covert observation?
Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent
Such behaviour must be public and happening anyway if the observation is to be ethical
What is overt observation?
Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and informed consent beforehand
What is participant observation?
The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording
Produces a first hand account
What is non-participant observation?
The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording.
This is in a more objective manner
What is observation?
One important non-experimental method
It is often used within an experiment as a way. for example, of assessing the dependent variable
What is behavioural categories?
One important non-experimental method
It is often used within an experiment as a way. for example, of assessing the dependent variable
What is event sampling?
A target behaviour or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs
What is time sampling?
A target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame, say, every 60 seconds
What is an unstructured observation?
When the researcher writes down everything they see. This tends to produce accounts of behaviour that are rich in detail
What are the two ways of recording data?
Structured observation and unstructured observation
What is a structured observation?
What are self-report techniques?
Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours and/or experiences related to a given topic
What are questionnaires?
What are interviews?
What are the different types of interviews?
What is an unstructured interview?
What is a structured interview?
What is a semi-structured interview?
What are open questions?
What are closed questions?
What types of questions can be in a questionnaire?
What can closed questions be further divided into?
Likert scales, rating scales, fixed-choice option
What are likert scales?
What are rating scales?
What are fixed-choice option?
What is an interview schedule?
What is jargon?
What is emotive language?
What are leading questions?
What are double-barrelled questions?
What are double negatives?
What is a correlation?
What are co-variables?
What is a positive correlation?
What is a negative correlation?
What is zero correlation?
What is secondary data?
What is primary data?
What is an intervening variable?
What is the please-U-effect?
What is the screw-U-effect?
What is qualitative data?
What is quantitative data?
What are examples of primary data?
What are examples of secondary data?
What are examples of quantitative methods?
What are examples of qualitative methods?
What are descriptive statistics?
What are measures of central tendency?
What is a mean?
What is a median?
What is a mode?
What are anomalous results?
What is bi-modal?
What is a modal group?
What is the range?
What is standard deviation?
What are measures of dispersion?
What is a scattergram?
What is a bar chart?
What is a histogram?
What is a normal distribution?
What is a skewed distribution?
What is a positive skew
What is a negative skew?
What is discrete data?
How do you calculate a percentage?
What does decimal place mean?
What is a part-to-part ratio?
What is a part-to-whole ratio?
What is standard form?
What are order of magnitude calculations?
What does ∝ mean?
What does ≫ mean?
What does ≪ mean?
What does ≈ mean?
What is the formula for standard deviation?
What does x represent in standard deviation?
What is statistical testing?
What is sign test?
What is retrospective consent?
Participants are asked for their consent (during debriefing) having already taken part in the study. They may not have been aware of their participation or they may have been subject to deception
