Key Issue Notes

Question 1

Social Approach - London Riots - what and why it is an issue?

Answer 1

In the UK summer 2011 riots, why did people not obey recognized authority figures? This is an issue because it meant that there was social unrest, chaos and damage done to property and lives across a certain number of days due to the inability of the police to control the scale of the situation and because of the fact that the rioters took no notice of the police’s authority.

Question 2

London Riots - Theories

Answer 2

Tajfel’s social identity theory – the in-group of protestors prejudiced against the out group, the police. To make themselves look better than their out group the rioters resulted to violence.
Milgrams agency theory – The autonomous state is where we use our own free will and take responsibility for our actions. The Agentic state is when we act on behalf of another. Milgram believed that when we respond to legitimate authority we tend to operate in the Agentic state. Therefore the rioters acted in the autonomous state and rejected authority.

Question 3

London Riots - Studies

Answer 3

Tajfel (1971 ) – study which assigned boys to either a Klee group or a Kandinsky group then given a reward allocation task. He found that categorizing the boys into groups caused them to identify with their in-group and engineer a positive social identity.
Milgram (1963) – obedience to malevolent authority figure shows evidence of people acting in the Agentic state.
Hofling (1966) – Obedience of nurses in a hospital when asked to administer drugs. Also shows evidence for people acting in Agentic state

Question 4

London Riots - Evaluation of explanation

Answer 4

Agency theory – Great deal of empirical support from Milgram, Hofling etc. Helps to explain moral strain (things against our principles but seems to be for the greater good). Although, not everyone obeys so there are individual differences. Explains Eichmann’s testimony – he was following orders and part of the ruling organization but didn’t chose to do what he did.
Social Identity Theory – Explains real world behavior such as football fans who feel negatively about other clubs. Has evidence to support it such as Tajfel’s minimal groups study which showed that putting people in groups will lead to discriminating against the out group. Simplifies complex human behavior – groups have shared histories involving conflict and it may be this history that causes the issues.

Question 5

Cognitive Approach - Eye Witness Testimony

Answer 5

Is eyewitness testimony reliable?
Eyewitness accounts are relied on in court using them as first hand accounts o what happened at the scene of a crime. This information is used to convict or not convict someone of a crime therefore the accuracy of these statements is very important.

Question 6

EWT - Studies

Answer 6

Godden and Baddeley (1975) – Asked 18 participants to learn 38 unrelated two or three syllable words underwater or on dry land and then recall them either underwater or on dry land. Recall was around 50% higher when it took place in the same environment as learning.
Loftus and Palmer (1974) – 45 participants shown 7 video clips of different car accidents and asked to judge the speed of the car. The verb ‘smashed’ produced the fastest estimate of speed and verb ‘contacted’ produced the slowest. This showed that leading questions do have an influence on witness memory.
Yarmey (2004) – A sample of 590 people were asked to identify a woman that went up to them earlier o and asked for either directions or help in finding lost jewellery. He found witness preparation didn’t improve eyewitness identification and students over estimated how many witnesses would be able to identify the target correctly.

Question 7

EWT - Theories

Answer 7

Cue dependent forgetting – When we encode a new memory we encode the information around it. If we cannot remember it’s because we’re not in a similar situation to when the memory was stored.
Interference theory – In LTM, forgetting may occur due to interference between old and new memories. Proactive interference – when you can’t learn a new task because of an old task that had been learnt and retroactive interference – when you forget a previously learnt task due to the learning of a new task.

Question 8

EWT - Eval of explanation

Answer 8

Cue Dependent forgetting – Plenty of anecdotal evidence for cue-dependent forgetting. The idea is testable and cues can be given to see if they aid recall. However, the experiment uses artificial tasks, even though some are related to real life.
Interference theory – Also has much evidence to support the theory and the evidence comes from experiments, which are controlled and so yield cause and effect conclusions. However, the studies tend to use word lists and artificial tasks and it is hard to separate interference from displacement and trade decay.

Question 9

Psychodynamic Approach - Are repressed memories real?

Answer 9

Are repressed memories always real or can false memories be planted by the analyst?
This is an issue as, if it is possible that false memories can be planted, this could lead the person to believing that they are someone different and exert different personalities. Therefore you are changing a person, which is ethically wrong.

Question 10

Repressed memories - Theories

Answer 10

Defense Mechanisms - Freud said that overuse of defense mechanisms can cause ill health and can cause the person who uses them too much to lose touch with reality, in the case of repression they could become too defensive when trying to forget something and people are asking you about it.
The theory behind repressed thoughts and memories is that thoughts and feelings, which may have been distressing and so have been repressed into the unconscious can be revealed through psychoanalysis such as dream analysis, slip of the tongue, free association or stream of consciousness techniques where the unconscious part of the mind is revealed

Question 11

Repressed Memories - Studies

Answer 11

The Philip Coates case - 30 year old was found guilty of raping a 24-year-old sailor. Before this Coates was a good character who had been married for eight months and admitted kissing the defendant prior to the attack but had not consented to sex. The victim, who can’t be named, was found soon after the attack “sobbing her heart out” and couldn’t remember what happened. Therefore she underwent Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing, two months later. This therapy allowed the victim to remember details of the incident and it was this evidence from the psychotherapy that was used to convict Philip Coates.
In 1986 Nadean Cool sought therapy from a psychiatrist to help her cope with her reaction to a traumatic event. The psychiatrist used hypnosis and during the process Cool became convinced that she had repressed memories of having been in a satanic culture, eating babies, being raped, having sex with animals and being forced to watch the murder of her eight-year-old friend. She also believed she had over 120 personalities and was told she had experienced sever childhood sexual and physical abuse.

Question 12

Repressed Memories - Eval of explanation

Answer 12

The theories put forward for this issue all come from Freud. There is no real evidence to prove his theories apart from case studies where he used his subjective analysis of the participant in order to come up with an answer to the problem. However, a lot of therapies from Freud’s work are still used today such as the Psychotherapy, using the unconscious to uncover repressed thoughts.

Question 13

Biological Approach - Autism

Answer 13

Is Autism an ‘extreme male brain’ condition?
Around 1 in 100 people in the UK are affected with autism and it is a lifelong condition. Therefore understanding more about Autism and how to cure it is important in helping the people that are suffering.

Question 14

Autism - Theories

Answer 14

Normal males have a smaller corpus callosum than normal females. In people with autism the corpus callosum has been found to be even smaller than in normal males, in males, amygdala is slightly larger than in females. Brain scans of toddlers with autism have shown that their amygdala’s tend to be abnormally large when compared with toddlers without autism, males are generally stronger at spatial tasks than females, and tests with autistic people show that they seem to be even better at spatial tasks than normal males.

Question 15

Autism - Studies

Answer 15

Baron-Cohen et al. (2005) suggested that the brain structure of autistic people is an ‘exaggeration’ of normal male brain structure

Question 16

Autism - Eval of explanation

Answer 16

Scientific evidence can be gathered though scanning techniques to see the difference between brains of males with and without autism to see if the autistic brain really is an ‘extreme male brain’. These research methods are reliable and objective. Also the ‘extreme male brain’ explanation that the biological approach puts forward fits with many features of autism and other males, such as males having less empathizing ability than females and focusing more on spatial tasks and systems. The explanation therefore appears to have some validity. However, scientific study of brain structures is objective but also reductionist. Conditions like autism are complex, involving both nature and nurture issue. It is possible that there are environmental causes for autism and these can occur before birth or during development after birth.

Question 17

Learning Approach - Role models on Anorexia

Answer 17

Do role models encourage eating disorders such as anorexia because they lead to teenagers wanting to be ‘impossibly’ thin?
Why is it an issue?
There are an estimated 60,000 people in Britain with eating disorders and there is evidence to suggest that these are influenced by thin models and celebrities. A British Medical Association Report found that in the 1990s models and actresses commonly had body fat levels as low as 10% but the average for a healthy woman is 22% to 26%. Therefore watching models if people see thin role models and want to be thin like them; this is an unhealthy and dangerous problem.

Question 18

Anorexia - Theories

Answer 18

Social Learning Theory - This states that people learn by imitating same sex role models whom they see as important because they are similar to them. These role models are usually perceived as having prestige as well such as celebrities who have power, money and fame. The behavior that is modeled by these role models is likely to be imitated, particularly if the observed behavior is rewarded as well, such as celebrities being successful, which can be seen as a reward.
The psychodynamic approach offers a different explanation to the reasons for the issue. The approach suggests that anorexia is a result of wanting to remain a child and not wanting to move into an adult sexual role.

Question 19

Anorexia - Studies

Answer 19

Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961) – 72 children enrolled at Stanford University Nursery School. The participants in the aggressive condition watched an experimenter act aggressively to a bobo doll in the non-aggressive condition the experimenter didn’t act aggressively. When the participants were given free play the ones in the aggressive condition showed more aggressive behavior than those in the non-aggressive model.

Question 20

Anorexia - Eval of explanation

Answer 20

SLT – There is a great deal of experimental evidence to support the theory and the behavior learned is visible. The theory gives rise to practical applications such as in therapy and in explaining. However, there might be a lack of validity as the behavior might not be exhibited immediately and studies are often carried out on animals and it can be difficult to generalize these.

Question 21

Criminal Approach - Are criminals made or born?

Answer 21

Are criminals made or born?
This is an issue as if criminals are made rather than born then this is an issue than we can sort with easier than we can if criminals are born.

Question 22

Criminals made or born - Theories (Made)

Answer 22

SLT – Observing behavior of role models, such as your father, will lead you to show similar behavior. If they’re violent, aggressive etc. then you’re likely to show this behavior as well.
SFP – Behavior is caused by us labeling them as showing this type of behavior. If we label someone as aggressive, deviant etc. then they will accept this stereotype and demonstrate this behavior.
Bowlby attachment theory – The first 18-24 months is when the attachment to the mother is formed. If this isn’t formed there could be problems in the future.
Adorno’s authoritarian personality – People with a very strict upbringing would develop an authoritarian personality where they were obsessed with rank and status.

Question 23

Criminals made or born - Theories (born)

Answer 23

Amygdala damage – The part of the brain involved in emotion and decision-making. Damage to this can cause problem.
Limbic system damage – Damage to the limbic system and cerebral cortex can cause aggressive behavior.
Frontal Lobe – the part of the brain, which supports goal behavior and the ability to decide between good and bad choices. Damage to this can cause bad choices to be made.

Question 24

Criminals made or born - Studies

Answer 24

Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961)
Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) – Labeled students as being gifted after a (fake) test and found that those labeled did the best at the end of the year.
Madon (2003) – Find influence of mother’s expectations on her child’s future alcohol use. She found that 52% of the relationship between a mother’s expectations and her child’s future alcohol use is down to accurate maternal expectations.
Bowlby – attachment theory.
Adorno (1950) – Authoritarian personality. See above.
Baron and Richardson (2004) – Damage to the limbic system theory.

Question 25

Criminals made or born - Eval of explanation

Answer 25

SLT – There is a great deal of experimental evidence to support the theory and the behavior learned is visible. The theory gives rise to practical applications such as in therapy and in explaining. However, there might be a lack of validity as the behavior might bot be exhibited immediately and studies are often carried out on animals and it can be difficult to generalize these.
All of the Brain damage theories – Very scientific with objective evidence from brain scans and studies on behavior. Therefore they show good evidence of how the brain affects behavior.
SFP – Evidence for SFP out there such as Madon’s study and R + J. It is highly unlikely we will ever be able to experimentally prove that SFP causes anti-social behavior though. It contrasts with SLT, which is an equally robust theory.

Question 26

Health Psychology - Drug Abuse

Answer 26

How Drug Abuse can be treated?
Drug Addicts are a problem for the health of the addict themselves. They are also a problem for society who has to deal with them and a cost for society in order to try and keep them maintained as well.

Question 27

Drug Abuse - Theories (Biological)

Answer 27

Biological approach -the methadone works in the brain, biologically. The methadone fits into the same receptors as opiates but the difference between methadone and opiates is methadone doesn’t cause the euphoric high and can actually block the effects of opiate drugs preventing someone from getting high if they relapse.
Nicotine patches are in the form of a big plaster and stuck onto the skin, usually on the upper arm area. They work by slowly releasing a measured dose of nicotine through the skin through transdermal delivery. This release of nicotine is absorbed into the blood stream and so as the body has a constant supply of nicotine, the cravings to smoke are lessened

Question 28

Drug Abuse - Theories (Social)

Answer 28

Social Approach – AA - The in-group has the mentality of we are alcoholics and everyone should help everyone to abstain from drinking alcohol. The out group then is everyone else who drinks really and they identify with the others in their in group by abstaining as well.

Question 29

Drug Abuse - Theories (Cognitive)

Answer 29

CBT - the goal of is to teach the person to recognize situations in which they are most likely to drink or use drugs, avoid these circumstances if possible, and cope with other problems and behaviors, which may lead to their substance abuse.

Question 30

Drug Abuse - Theories (Learning)

Answer 30

When disulfiram is administered shortly before consuming alcohol, the oxidizing of acetaldehyde is blocked so the individual experiences the unpleasant effects of alcohol only. This pairing of alcohol with the unpleasant symptoms is used to classically condition in an aversion to alcohol.

Question 31

Drug Abuse - Studies

Answer 31

Ennet et al (1994) - They found that cliques tended to show greater in-group homogeneity and out-group heterogeneity i.e. in the majority of cliques there was a high level of similarity in behavior. They also found that there was a significant relationship between clique membership and smoking behavior. Link to AA.

Question 32

Drug Abuse - Biological Theory Eval

Answer 32

The benefits of methadone treatment are that it is taken orally so there is no danger of contracting diseases through dirty or shared needles, it enables addicts to break links with dealer, so they are no longer pressured into taking heroin and it’s not seen as pleasant drinking a green liquid – this will put the addicts of and help recovery. However, people have questioned its effectiveness as it is basically replacing a drug with another one.
The method can increase the chances of giving up for good by about 50% or more but the biggest problem is that the patches only work if the smoker is motivated to quit smoking and given proper thought and planning to the event. This is because you have to be committed enough to put on a new patch every day and remove one at night.

Question 33

Drug Abuse - Learning Theory Eval

Answer 33

Aversion therapy is good in the short term due to the unpleasant side effect. However, the main problems with it is the relapse rates are high as when disulfiram is no longer being used the level of nausea experienced, which is reliant entirely on the conditioned response, will gradually become extinct.

Question 34

Drug Abuse - Social Theory Eval

Answer 34

AA - The main problem is people have to have the will power and determination to go the meetings and actually take an active part in them as well, in order to help themselves. Also if they start mixing with a group outside of the AA who encourage drinking rather than abstaining then this could encourage them to relapse. Good success rate though.

Question 35

Drug Abuse - Cognitive Theory Eval

Answer 35

CBT - Research has shown that CBT can be as effective as medicine in treating drug addiction. You need to commit yourself fully to the process by attending all of the meetings and cooperating fully with the therapist as it takes the work of both people to remove the problems