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keep forgetting Flashcards

1
Q

what binds to GFP to stabilise it when visualising neurones

A

M13 AND Calmodulin

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2
Q

Ventral pathway :

A

‘what’ V1,V2,V4, inferior temporal cortex

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3
Q

Dorsal Pathway:

A

‘Where’ V1,V2,V3, posterior parietal

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4
Q

when is glutamate released

A

by photoreceptors when depolarised

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5
Q

types of channels in On cells and OFF cells

A

on - metabotropic GluR

off - ionotropic GluR (excitatory)

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6
Q

illuminate centre of ON cell

illuminate surround of ON cell

A

centre - activated - depolarised

Surround - deactivated - hyper polarise

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7
Q

illuminate centre of OFF cell

illuminate surround of OFF cell

A

surround - activated - depolarised

Centre - deactivated - hyper polarise

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8
Q

what receptors occur in olfactory in mammals and insects

A

mammals - GPCRs

insects - Ion channels

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9
Q

Drosophila olfactory pathway

A

Olfactory receptor neuron
Glomeruli (antennal lobe)
Local neurones
projection neurones

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10
Q

Mammals olfactory pathway

A

Olfacotry sensory neurone
Glomeruli
Granule/ perigranular
Mitral and tufted

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11
Q

Innate olfactory features

A 
innate: 
Categories				Cats
Dense					Dont
Prefer certain odours 		Prefer
Stereotyped 				Salmon

Lateral horn and Amygdala

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12
Q

Learned olfactory features

A 
Learned:
Discriminate			Dog
Sparse				Still
Arbitrary				Ate 
Random 				Rabbit

Piriform and Mushroom Body

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13
Q

olfactory transduction pathway steps

A 
Oderant    
Receptor 
Golfs
Adenylyl Cyclase
cAMP 
Na and Ca channels
Cl channels 
Depolarisation
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14
Q

which tastes are metabotropic which are ionotropic

A

M: umami, sweet, bitter
I: salt, sour

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15
Q

taste transduction pathway stages

A 
Taste buds
brainstem
VPM of thalamus
Insula 
Parietal Cortex
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16
Q

inner hair cell resting potential

A

-60mV

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17
Q

hair cell hyper polarised potential

A

-65mV

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18
Q

OHC features

A

V shaped bundle, innervated by efferent fibres, preston motor protein that contract in response to Cl- movement, connected to the tectoal membrane

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19
Q

outer hair cell resting potential

A

-40mV so respond faster than IHC

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20
Q

stages in the auditory transduction pathway starting after hair cell depolarisation

A 
cochlear nucleus 
superior olivary complex
inferior and superior colliculus
Medial geniculate nucleus 
auditory cortex
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21
Q

role of the Medial geniculate nucleus

A

memory and learning

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22
Q

role of the colliculus in auditory system

A

integration of auditory and non auditory inputs

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23
Q

hierarchical model

A 
Edges				
Contours
Parts of object 
Point of view 
View Invariant 
Categorisation
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24
Q

hubel and wiesel experiments

A

V1 cortex in cats

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25
Q

difference between simple and complex cells in in the cortex

A

Simple cells : layers 4 and 6 and have an elongated receptive field that responds if stimulated in the centre of the receptive field

Complex : layers 2, 3 and 5 and collect information from simple cells with the same orientation, responds if stimulated anywhere in the receptive field

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26
Q

disadvantages of the hierarchical model

A

doesn’t take feedback from higher cortical areas into account and poor scale

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27
Q

optic tectum ablation leads to

A

lose orientation reflex

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28
Q

difference between sound in vertical and horizontal planes

A

Sound elevation in the vertical plane has monaural cues, sound position in the horizontal plane has binaural cues

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29
Q

what do command neurones control

A

saccadic eye movements

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30
Q

neurotransmitter released by amacrine

A

inhibitory - GABA

31
Q

neurotransmitter released by bipolar cells

A

excitatory - glutamate

32
Q

LSO-MNTB binaural excitatory-inhibitory (EI) pathway:

A

Detects interaural level differences (ILDs)
detected by cells in lateral superior olive
LSO receives excitatory input from ipsilateral side and indirect inhibitory input from contralateral side.
MNTB converts excitatory input from contralateral aVCN to inhibitory, to inhibit the LSO
The position of a sound around the head is determined by the arrival of excitatory and inhibitory inputs (coincidence)

33
Q

Binaural Excitatory-Excitatory (EE) Pathway:

A

Detects interaural timing differences (ITDs)
Requires the coincidence from both ears but both inputs are excitatory
ITDs are encoded by cells in the MSO that compare the coincidence of excitatory ipsilateral and contralateral inputs.
The overall position of a sound is encoded by the balance between the average population response of the two MSO channels.

34
Q

what is habituation

A

Habituation is the depletion of the synaptic vesicle pool,

> 50% lower quantal release

35
Q

what is sensitisation - simple bear model

A

Protein Kinase A (PKA) phosphorylates and inactivates K+ channels, longer depolarisation means more vesicular release

36
Q

Simplified hippocampal circuit:

A

main input is the entorhinal cortex to dentate gyrus (perforant),
a synapse links dentate gyrus to CA3 (mossy fibres),
a synapse links CA3 to CA1 (Schaffer collaterals),
output via fornix and subiculum

37
Q

LTP Mechanism:

A

LTP Mechanism:
Glutamate activates AMPA and NMDA receptors
AMPA depolarises the membrane and a Mg2+ block is removed from NMDA
NMDA receptor mediated by Ca2+ activates calmodulin kinase II (CaMKII)
Activation of PKA translocates to the nucleus which triggers gene expression causing increase in sensitivity of the AMPA receptor

38
Q

role of cAMP in LTP

A

activated by PKA it then binds to CREB to regulate gene expression

39
Q

what is LTD and what are the 2 types

A

decrease in EPSP occurs in hippocampus and cerebellum

de novo - there was no previous potentiation
Depotentiation - removal of previous LTP

40
Q

difference between parallel and climbing fibres

A

parallel - 1 synapse on many Purkinje cells, release glutamate that binds to and activates GluR and AMPA

Climbing - many synapses with 1 purkinje cell, releases Na+ that depolarises the purkinje

41
Q

role of kenyon cells

A

Kenyon cells receive input from multiple projection neurons and require multiple simultaneous inputs to fire (selective)
- Kenyon cells sample small regions in projection neurons, this turns a dense combinatorial code into a sparse selective code

42
Q

what are the subdivision of the kenyon cell axons

A

Kenyon cell axons are subdivided into compartments by innervation of mushroom body output neurons (MBONs) and dopaminergic neurons (DANs)

DANs are paired with MBONs of the ‘opposite’ valence- this predicts that learning should happen by weakening synapses

43
Q

FOXp mutation in the fly leads to …… why?

A

longer to make decisions

FOXP regulates K+ channels so if mutated more K+channels in kenyon so hyper polarised and takes longer to depolarise

44
Q

name 2 channels that small molecules can pass through when fixing faulty circuits

A

TRPV1 and P2XR

45
Q

The GAL4/UAS System used for

A

: Allows us to artificially express arbitrary transgenes in specific cells

46
Q

GAL4 consists of…

A

GAL4 consists of two domains- a DNA binding domain and an activation domain

47
Q

Difference between forwards and backward pairing of the Kenyon cell MBON synapse

A

forward pairing depresses Kenyon Cell-MBON synapses

backward pairing potentiates Kenyon Cell-MBON synapses

48
Q

Kenyon cells have two different dopamine receptors…

A

DopR1 signals to Gs proteins
DopR1 is important for forward learning (no calcium)

DopR2 signals to Gq proteins
and DopR2 is important for backward (uses calcium)

49
Q

what do Gs and Gq activate –

A
  • Gs activates adenylyl cyclase cAMP

* Gq activates PLC which makes IP3, causing the release of Ca2+ from the ER (used in backward learning only)

50
Q

difference between mushroom body and cerebellum in learning

A

in the insect mushroom body training reduces the “wrong” behaviour

The cerebellum mediates motor learning by partly correcting “wrong” movement’

51
Q

What will the main functional consequence be if half of the number of ribbon synapses in an inner hair cell degenerate?

A

The cell would not be able to encode the full range of sound intensity

52
Q

What is the main functional role of the inner ear oscicles?

A

a. They transform air compressions into liquid motion

53
Q

Mice with mutated and malfunctional Cav1.3 Ca2+ channels are deaf because:-

A

c. There is no neurotransmitter release from the hair cells

54
Q

What is the primary functional consequence of the lack of endocochlear potential?

A

. The driving force for K+ entry into hair cells through the transducer channels is removed

55
Q

The inner hair cell resting transducer current is important because:-

A

. It sustains a level of afferent activity that can be reduced or increased

56
Q

What is the main difference in the mechanism responsible for detecting binaural timing differences in mammals and birds

A

In mammals they are represented by two hemispheric channels and in birds by labelled lines

57
Q

What is unique about the representation of stimulus location in the auditory system compared to that in the visual system?

A

he location is not represented in the topography of the receptor cells in the auditory system

58
Q

What factors determine an animal’s preferred mechanism for localising sounds in the horizontal plane?

A

The size of the head and the mechanical limitations of the auditory system

59
Q

Why has the hearing range of some mammals evolved to become extended towards the lower frequencies

A

The animals have become bigger and their territories have become larger

60
Q

Why does visual information usually dominate in the sensation of topography?

A

It is a more reliable representation

61
Q

How does olfaction differs from other sensory modalities

A

The physical characteristics of light and sound can be described quantitatively along a few dimensions, whereas odorant molecules cannot.

62
Q

in the mouse olfactory bulb, blocking synaptic transmission in these neurons, prevents them from signalling to other neurons. what does this cause

A

] Mice would be less able to behaviourally discriminate between different odours

63
Q

what technique revealed that the Drosophila mushroom body is tiled by non-overlapping compartments defined by innervation by mushroom body output neurons (MBONs) and dopaminergic neurons (DANs)

A

GAL4/UAS system

64
Q

Why do Drosophila Kenyon cells respond so selectively to odours?

A

Kenyon cells require multiple inputs to fire simultaneously before they will fire.

65
Q

what would be experimental evidence that a neurone is acting to accumulate sensory evidence according to the drift-diffusion model of sensory decision-making?

A

Its activity ramps up over time, reaching a threshold immediately before the animal makes a decision.

66
Q

The inner plexiform layer (IPL) contains synapses between:

A

bipolar, amacrine and ganglion cells

67
Q

in darkness what is happening at the cGMP channels

A

Most cGMP-channels in rods and cones are open

68
Q

Magnocellular cells have

A

large and round-shaped receptive fields

69
Q

what do complex cells respond too

A

Complex cells respond to a bar in certain orientation anywhere in the receptive field

70
Q

Activation of halorhodopsin expressed in a neuron causes:

A

the hyperpolarisation of the neuron

71
Q

attributes that make invertebrates useful model systems for the study of learning and memory

A

preparations from invertebrates do not require the same complexity of environmental control that equivalent preparations from mammals would do

and
the neuronal circuitry involved in regulating behaviours is often relatively simple

72
Q

what is a defining feature of a Hebbian synapse

A

it requires co-ordinated activity in both pre- and post- synaptic terminals

73
Q

what is AMPAfication

A

it involves the incorporation of new AMPA receptors into a synapse undergoing LTP

74
Q

what may LTD result in

A

it may involve a reduction in the number of post-synaptic receptors.

neural circuits (13 decks)

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