Judgment and Reasoning

Question 1

Fallacy

Answer 1

Erroneous reasoning in judgement and decision making.

Question 2

Reasoning

Answer 2

The process of drawing conclusions and the cognitive process by which people start with information and form conclusions that go beyond that information.

There are two types of reasoning:

• Deductive reasoning: Definitely true
• Inductive reasoning: Probably true

Question 3

Deductive reasoning

Answer 3

Aristotle is the father of deductive reasoning.

In this case, the conclusion definitely follows from the premises.

Question 4

Syllogism

Answer 4

A simple form of reasoning which is formed by two premises followed by a conclusion.

There are two types of syllogism:

• Categorical
• Conditional

Question 5

Categorical Syllogism

Answer 5

Relationship between two categories by using statements that begin with “all”, “some”, “none”.

Question 6

Validity of a Syllogism

Answer 6

A syllogism is valid when the conclusion follows logically from the two premises.

Question 7

Truth of the content of the syllogism

Answer 7

Here, we look at the content of the premises and we assert if it is true or not.

Question 8

Conditional Syllogism

Answer 8

Two premises and a conclusion but the first premise have the form of “if … then …”.

There are four types of conditional syllogism:

• Affirming the antecedent
• Denying the consequent
• Denying the antecedent
• Affirming the consequent

Question 9

Affirming the antecedent

Answer 9

Premise 1: If I study then I will get a good grade

Premise 2: I studied

Conclusion: I will get a good grade

In this example, premise 2 affirms the first part of premise 1 (in bold).

This is always valid.

Question 10

Denying the consequent

Answer 10

Premise 1: If I study then I will get a good grade

Premise 2: I didn’t get a good grade

Conclusion: I didn’t study

Here, premise 2 denies the second part of premise 1 (in bold).

This type of conditional syllogism is always valid.

Question 11

Denying the antecedent

Answer 11

Premise 1: If I study then I will get a good grade

Premise 2: I didn’t study

Conclusion: I will not get a good grade

Invalid conclusion

Question 12

Affirming Consequent

Answer 12

Premise 1: If I study then I will get a good grade

Premise 2: I got a good grade

Conclusion: I studied

Invalid conclusion

Question 13

Abstract Syllogisms

Answer 13

In a study, participants were asked to say if a given syllogism was valid or not.

The syllogism was given in abstract form, such as

Premise 1: A -> B

Premise 2: A

Conclusion: B

Participants were better at identifying the validity of the syllogism if it was in a real-life context.

Question 14

Falsification Principle

Answer 14

This principle states that to test a rule, we have to look for situations that would falsify the rule.

Question 15

Inductive Reasoning

Answer 15

Conclusions with varying degrees of certainty but definitely do not follow from the premises.

Question 16

Strength of the argument

Answer 16

Factors influencing the strength of an argument:

• Representativeness
• Number of observations
• Quality of evidence

Question 17

Availability Heuristic

Answer 17

Events that are more easily remembered are judge as being more probably than the ones that are not as easily remembered.

Question 18

Availability Heuristic Experiment

Answer 18

In an experiment lead by McKelvie, 26 participants were shown one of the two lists:

• Famous men condition (12 famous men names, 14 women names)
• Famous women condition (12 famous women names, 14 men names)

The participants were then asked if there were more men or women names in the given list. The participants that had the Famous men condition list, said that there were more men in the list and vice versa for the participants that got the second list.

Question 19

Illusory Correlations

Answer 19

This is the idea that we think some correlation might exists but they don’t.

Question 20

Illusory Correlations Experiment

Answer 20

Psychologists were given a series of descriptions of a Rorschach test and some personality test (which were paired at random).

Psychologists found patterns where there was none.

Question 21

Why does Illusory Correlations happen?

Answer 21

• Prior expectations
• Confirmation bias

Question 22

Representativeness Heuristic

Answer 22

The probability that A is a member of class B can be determined by how well the properties of A match the properties of B.

Question 23

Base rate:

Answer 23

The relative proportion of different classes in the population.

Question 24

Category Homogeneity

Answer 24

Category properties are shared by all members.

Question 25

Confirmation bias

Answer 25

The greater likelihood of responding to a piece of evidence if it confirms our beliefs.

Question 26

Belief Perseverance

Answer 26

Stick to your beliefs

Question 27

Expected utility Theory

Answer 27

People are rational, so if they have all the information necessary they will make a choice such that they get the maximum expected utility.

Question 28

Utility

Answer 28

Outcomes that achieve a person’s goals

Question 29

Expected Emotions

Answer 29

Emotions that people predict they will have for a given outcome.

Expected emotions provide a lot of information about probably emotional outcomes. It doesn’t involve to really feel the emotion. Moreover, it can be made part of the Expected Utility Theory since a good feeling is a good outcome and a bad feeling a bad outcome.

Question 30

Immediate Emotions

Answer 30

Emotions that are experienced in the moment of decision making and there are two types:

• Integral immediate decisions: emotions related to the act of making a decision.
• Incidental immediate decisions: unrelated to the actual decision

Question 31

Risk Aversion

Answer 31

The tendency to avoid risks.

Question 32

Framing Effect

Answer 32

Decisions are affected by how choices are framed.

If they are stated in terms of gains, people tend to take more risks whereas if the choice is given in terms of loses, people tend to be risk-averse.

Question 33

Damage to the Prefrontal Cortex

Answer 33

Patients with prefrontal cortex damage have deductive reasoning impairment.