Issues & Debates

Question 1

Outline gender bias

Answer 1

Alpha bias - exaggerates / overestimates differences between men + women. Differences typically presented as fixed + inevitable + more likely to devalue women.

E.g. Freud argued as girls don’t suffer same oedipus conflict as boys, they don’t identify with mothers as strongly as boys identify with fathers so develop weaker superegos.

Beta bias - minimises differences between men + women + almost ignores female experience. Occurs when research doesn’t include female pps - assumed results derived from all-male study will apply equally to women + all types of women.

E.g. Asch generalised conformity study to women despite sample including only men – later research suggests women may be more conformist than men (Neto)

Androcentrism: consequence of beta bias; when our understanding of ‘normal behaviour’ judged according to male standard, female behaviour often seen to be abnormal / inferior in comparison. Leads to female behaviour being misunderstood + in some cases even pathologized.

Question 2

Evaluate gender bias (1)

Answer 2

Institutional sexism - example as to how psych undermines value of women in research + samples. Male researchers more likely to be published + appear in school spec e.g. many major + influential research included in AQA spec conducted by men whilst only 1 / 2 female researchers recognised e.g. Mary Ainsworth + SS

Doesn’t mean women haven’t conducted meaningful psych research, but its harder to be acknowledged as researcher as women in comparison to being a man.

Lab exps further disadvantage women as often female pps placed in an inequitable relationship with male researcher who has power to label them as irrational + unable to complete complex tasks (Nicolson 1995). More intense in the past, but still occurs today - suggests psych is guilty of supporting form of institutional sexism that creates bias in theory + research.

Question 3

Evaluate gender bias (2)

Answer 3

Many gender differences been based on essentialist perspective (i.e. gender difference is inevitable + fixed in nature) - can be used against women in psych.

Walkerdine (1990) reported that in 1930s, ‘scientific’ research revealed how intellectual activity e.g. attending uni would shrivel women’s ovaries + harm chances of giving birth.

Such essentialist accounts are often politically motivated arguments disguised as bio ‘facts’ + create double standard in way the same behaviour is viewed from male + female perspective - has damaging implications for women.

Question 4

Evaluate gender bias (3)

Answer 4

Gender biased research may fail to challenge negative stereotypes + validate discriminatory practices.
May also attempt to provide scientific ‘justification’ to deny women opportunities within workplace / even wider society (“It becomes normal for women to feel abnormal” - Tavris (1993)).

Gender bias can have damaging consequences which affects lives of real women e.g. women are around 2x as likely to be diagnosed with depression than men.

Question 5

Evaluate gender bias (4)

Answer 5

Is there a solution for gender bias in psychology? Worrel (1992) created criteria to avoid gender bias in research - includes concepts such as:

Studying women within meaningful real life context
Having women genuinely participate in research rather than just be objects of the study.
Diversity within groups of women studied rather than comparisons made between men + women.
Emphasis should be placed on collaborative research methods that collect qualitative, as opposed to quantitative data.

Question 6

Outline idiographic and nomothetic approaches

Answer 6

Ideographic approach - ppl studied as unique entities with own subjective experiences, motivations + values. No attempt made to compare person to norm

Less scientific than nomothetic due to emphasis on subjectivity + the individual. Examples include case studies + unstructured interviews that produce qualitative data
Psychodynamic + humanist approach reflect ideographic methods with use of case studies (Little Hans) + stress on richness of human experience (Roger’s client-centred therapy).

Nomothetic approach aims to produce general laws of human behaviour to provide a benchmark to which people can be compared to, classified + measured. Examples include exps with large samples of people - will mainly produce quantitative data
Biological + behaviourist approach closely reflects such methods (Skinner studying responses of hundreds of rats to develop laws of learning).

Question 7

Evaluate the ideographic approach (1+)

Answer 7

Ideographic gives well-rounded account of individual due to detailed qualitative methods of investigation. Can compliment findings from nomothetic by providing clarity on general laws based on subjective human experience + if laws need changing.

E.g. single case study may generate hypotheses for further studies (e.g. case of HM + how we found that STM + LTM were 2 separate stores).

May reveal important insights about normal functioning which can contribute to our overall understanding of human development + behaviour.

Question 8

Evaluate the ideographic approach (2-)

Answer 8

Lack of scientific method can cause issues.
One of the criticisms of Freud’s concepts e.g. Oedipus complex were that they were largely developed from study of single case (Little Hans) - meaningful generalisations cannot be made - there is no adequate baseline with which to compare behaviour.

Also these methods considered least scientific as their conclusions often rely on subjective interpretation of researcher, so is open to bias limiting applicability of ideographic methods to wider audience.

Question 9

Evaluate the nomothetic approach (3+)

Answer 9

Nomothetic is much more scientific - uses standardised procedures, prediction + control, + statistical analysis. Methodology gives psych better credibility - allows exps conducted under this approach to be easier to replicate than that of the ideographic approach - internal validity + confidence increases on findings.

Such processes have also allowed psychologists to establish norms of ‘typical’ behaviour (e.g. average IQ of 100) - credibility.

Question 10

Evaluate the nomothetic approach (4-)

Answer 10

General laws + emphasis on being scientific can lose person being studied within research e.g. knowing that there is 1% lifetime risk of developing schizophrenia tells us little about what life is like for someone suffering from disorder - ideographic methodology could give us a better insight

Similarly, in lab studies involving tests of e.g. memory, pps treated as series of scores rather than individual people + subjectivity of human experience is completely ignored.

Consequently, with emphasis strictly on generalisation, nomothetic may often overlook richness of human nature + instead view humans as product of stimulus-response links.

Question 11

Evaluate ideographic and nomothetic approaches (5)

Answer 11

Interactionist approach
Triangulation - when researchers use numerous methods to get to end result

May solve such issues in deciding which approach is best - perhaps mixture of both ideographic + nomothetic methods is ideal.

Question 12

Outline the holism-reductionism debate

Answer 12

Holism - rejects attempt to break up behaviour - considers it inappropriate as these can only be understood by analysing person as whole. View shared by humanistic approach - successful therapy is result of bringing together all aspects of whole person.

Reductionism - human behaviour best explained by breaking it down into smaller parts. Psychodynamic approach is reductionist - relies on basic set of structures that attempt to simplify very complex picture (e.g. id, ego, superego, unconscious)

Bio reductionism - explains psych phenomena in terms of evolutionary + genetic influences.
Plays part in bio approach + has been successfully applied e.g. effects of psychoactive drugs on brain have contributed to understanding of neural processes - possible to explain serious mental disorders e.g. OCD at biochemical level.

Environmental reductionism - explains behaviour in terms of stimulus-response links that have been learned through experience + measurable within lab
Behaviourist approach built upon this ideology by studying only observable behaviour.

Question 13

Evaluate the holism-reductionism debate (1)

Answer 13

Many will support holistic approach due to it being better in understanding contexts of a situation + so more suited for understanding disorders e.g. depression.

Bio psychologist may disagree - argue that such disorders are caused your genes, but humanistic psychologists put more emphasis on context e.g. how experience with poverty + trauma can trigger depression.

Provides complete + global understanding of behaviour - helps in understanding causes of disorders so that we can find way to treat them effectively.

Question 14

Evaluate the holism-reductionism debate (2)

Answer 14

Reductionism may also be useful in making treatments.

To create operationalised variables its necessary to break target behaviours down into constituent parts so its possible to record observations (behavioural categories) in meaningful + reliable way. Due to this methodology we can understand cause + effect relationships more + so make more effective treatments for illnesses e.g. OCD

Provides greater credibility for reductionist approach.

Question 15

Evaluate the holism-reductionism debate (3)

Answer 15

But some aspects of social behaviour may only emerge within group context + cannot be understood at level of individual group members.

E.g. effects of conformity to social roles of prisoners + guards in Zimbardo’s Stanford prison exp could not be understood by studying pps as individuals as it was interaction between two groups of people + behaviour of group as whole that was important.

Also, there is no conforming gene, so its essential to rely on context of situation as whole rather than breaking it down as reductionism attempts to do.

Further suggests holistic explanations provide more complete + global understanding of behaviour than reductionist approaches

Question 16

Outline the nature-nurture debate

Answer 16

Nature: behaviour / characteristics are hereditary / innate
Nurture: behaviour determined by environmental influences

Many believe nature-nurture debate is impossible to find answer to - both closely intertwined so its illogical to separate them (interactionist approach).
E.g. Nestadt’s OCD twin studies - Mz twins have higher concordance rates than Dz so nature plays bigger part. But no twin study found 100% concordance rate in identical twins, so bio factors not only one contributing to OCD - environmental factors also do

Interactionist approach best understood through diathesis-stress model - emphasises interaction between nature + nurture e.g. one may have genetics that make them more vulnerable in getting OCD, but environmental trigger needed for one to actually get it.

Question 17

Evaluate the nature-nurture debate (1)

Answer 17

Interaction between genes + enviro influences is elaborated by constructivism
Idea that people create own nurture by actively seeking out + selecting environments that fit their nature e.g. shy person would more likely make friends with other shy people + this would affect their development.
So our nature drives our nurture, e.g. our temperament (innate) determines our interests (niche building / nurture – Plomin 1994)
Provides further evidence that its illogical to try to separate nature + nurture influences.

Question 18

Evaluate the nature-nurture debate (2)

Answer 18

Research which attempts to single out effects of envirol influences limited by the fact that siblings living in family may not experience event in same way.
Dunn + Plomin (1990) - individual differences amongst siblings mean they might experience life events differently e.g. age and/or temperament would mean that event such as parental divorce would have different meaning + impact to each sibling.
Suggests why Mz twins living together don’t have 100% concordance rates + supports view that hereditary + enviro influences cannot be separated.

Question 19

Evaluate the nature-nurture debate (3)

Answer 19

Implications of nativism + empiricism
Nativists: inherited genetic make-up determines characteristics + behaviour whilst enviro influences have little input - extreme deterministic view has led to controversies such as that which attempted to link race, genetics + intelligence + application of genetic policies.
Empricism: contrasting but equally damaging stance, suggests behaviours can be changed by altering enviro conditions (behaviour shaping) - this has had practical application in therapy where desirable behaviours selectively reinforced + undesirable behaviours are punished / ignored. But in extreme terms, may lead one to advocate for a society that controls + manipulates its citizens using these techniques.

Question 20

Outline the free will - determinism debate

Answer 20

Free will: humans can make choices + not determined by bio / external forces.
Determinism: individual’s behaviour shaped + controlled by internal / external forces rather than person’s will to do something.

Hard determinism: free will not possible as our behaviour always controlled by internal / external forces beyond our control
Soft determinism: all events including human behaviour have causes but it can also be determined by our conscious choices.

Biological determinism: behaviour caused by bio (genetic, hormonal + evolutionary) influences we cannot control
Psychic determinism – behaviour caused by unconscious conflicts we cannot control.
Environmental determinism - behaviour caused by features of environment e.g. reward + punishment systems we cannot control.

Question 21

Evaluate the free will - determinism debate (1)

Answer 21

Hard determinist way of thinking has several implications with legal system.
E.g. if one was to commit serious crime + face court but blamed it on external forces they had no control over (e.g. MAOA gene) - proposes question as to whether they should be punished as hereditary traits are beyond their control.
Victims would not get justice they deserve - significant reason why ppl side with free will - should take responsibility for own actions

Question 22

Evaluate the free will - determinism debate (2)

Answer 22

Perhaps its better to believe in free will over determinism
Everyday experiences gives impression that we’re constantly exercising free will through choices we make e.g. clothes we wear - gives face validity - makes cognitive sense.

Research suggests ppl with internal LOC (believe they have higher degree of influence over events + own behaviour) generally more mentally healthy
.
Roberts et al (2000) - adults with strong belief in fatalism (lives ‘decided’ by events outside of control) at significantly greater risk of developing depression.
Perhaps better to think we have free will + choice - may have positive impact on mind + behaviour.

Question 23

Evaluate the free will - determinism debate (3)

Answer 23

Neurological studies of decision making oppose initial opinion.
Libet (1985) + Soon et al (2008) - brain activity that determines outcome of simple choices may predate our knowledge of having made such a choice.
Activity related to whether to press button with the left / right hand occurs in brain up to 10 seconds before pps report being consciously aware of making decision.
Suggests even our basic experiences of free will are determined by brain before we become aware of it + effectively opposes preconceived notion of free will.

Question 24

Evaluate the free will - determinism debate (4)

Answer 24

Interactionist position - allow us to see compromised view in this debate.
Approaches e.g. SLT (approach with a cognitive element) tend to adopt soft determinism.
E.g. Bandura argued that although environmental factors are key in learning, we are free to choose who / what to attend to + when to perform certain behaviours.

Question 25

Outline cultural bias

Answer 25

Cultural bias - tendency to judge ppl in terms of one’s own cultural assumptions + cultural perspective.

Ethnocentrism - belief in superiority of one’s own cultural group. Mainly seen through behaviours that don’t follow, usually Western, model viewed as deficient / abnormal

Ainsworth’s Strange Situation (1970) - criticised for only reflecting norms of American culture: child-rearing practices around world that deviated from ideal attachment traits seen as abnormal e.g. German mums seen as rejecting rather than encouraging independence in their children

Ainsworth’s research also example of imposed etic - assumed US-based findings were norm + could be applied universally (Berry 1969).
Psych guilty of imposed etic in other research too - suggested that to avoid cultural bias, we should be mindful of cultural relativism in research + no-one culture is superior to another.

Question 26

Evaluate cultural bias (1)

Answer 26

Conducting cross-cultural research challenges Western ways of thinking + viewing world, but this is positive thing.
Being able to see that some knowledge + concepts we take for granted are not universal can promote greater sensitivity to cultural relativism in future.
This not only counters charges of scientific racism that have been made against some psych research, but also conclusions drawn are likely to have more validity if they include recognition of role of culture in bringing them about.

Question 27

Evaluate cultural bias (2)

Answer 27

However, there are issues by conducting cultural research - variables under review may not be experienced in same way by all pps.
E.g. behavioural expression of emotions such as aggression may allow for different behaviours within indigenous population than in the West.
In China, invasion of personal space seen as normal but in West its seen as threatening / confrontational.
Such issues can heavily affect interactions between researcher + pps, specifically between Western + non-Western pps in cross-cultural research.

Question 28

Evaluate cultural bias (3)

Answer 28

Berry’s concept of imposed etic helps remind psychologists of culturally specific nature of their work, but we should not assume that there’s no such thing as universal human behaviour.
E.g. research suggests basic facial expressions like happiness are same all over world.
Based on this, ppl that critique Strange Situation should remember that some features of human attachment like imitation + interactional synchrony are universal.

Question 28

Evaluate cultural bias (4)

Answer 28

Perhaps cultural bias in research less of an issue than before
In past, when making reference to culture, psychologists have often done so within context of individualist-collectivist distinction.
Individualist - associated with Western countries who value personal freedom + independence. Collectivist - place more emphasis on interdependence + needs of group
Recently tho, critics argue such simplistic distinction between cultures no longer applies.
Takona + Osaka (1999) - 14 of 15 studies comparing USA + Japan found no evidence of traditional distinction between individualism + collectivism - provides hope for future research - suggest cultural bias becoming less prominent issue than historically seen.

Question 29

Outline ethical implications

Answer 29

Impact that psych research may have in terms of rights of other ppl especially pps. At societal level - influencing public policy and/or way certain groups of ppl are regarded

Some areas of research likely to be more controversial + subject to greater social sensitivity than others e.g. studies of race + sexuality. Such research has importance - psychologists shouldn’t shy away from socially sensitive research

Sieber + Stanley (1988) identified # of concerns that researchers should be mindful of when conducting socially sensitive research:

Implications - wider effects of this research should be carefully considered - some studies can be see as giving ‘scientific’ credibility to prejudice + discrimination e.g. studies examining racial basis of intelligence.

Public policy – what happens if findings used for wrong purpose? Findings may be adopted by government for political motives / to shape public policy.

Validity of the research - some findings presented as objective in past discovered to be highly suspect / fraudulent. But many modern researchers tackling socially sensitive research are more upfront about own biases + preconceptions + comment on reflexive nature of their work (Burt 1955)

Question 30

Evaluate ethical implications (1)

Answer 30

Indeed there are ethical implications associated with research into controversial topics, but Scarr (1988) argues studies of underrepresented groups + issues may promote greater sensitivity + understanding of them - can help reduce prejudice + encourage acceptance.
Also, socially sensitive research has benefitted society e.g. research into reliability of EWT has reduced risk of miscarriages of justice within legal system, + therefore showcases valuable role socially sensitive research plays in society.

Question 31

Evaluate ethical implications (2)

Answer 31

Conducting such research can prove to be difficult.
Sieber + Stanley (1988) argued that one should be mindful of how research questions phrased (leading questions) - may influence how findings are interpreted.
Research into effects of heterosexual bias (where homosexual relationships compared + judged against heterosexual norms) suggests investigators must also approach research with open mind + be prepared to have their preconceptions challenged if they are to avoid misrepresenting minority groups.

Question 32

Evaluate ethical implications (3)

Answer 32

Socially sensitive research been used by government to shape social policy without full consideration of effects of environment on characteristics like intelligence.
But there’s been other research that may seem harmless but also has socially sensitive consequences e.g. in 1950s research into persuasive effects of subliminal messages used by marketing companies to advertise products.

One study claimed sales of Coca-Cola + popcorn increased significantly when images were flashed up on cinema screens too quickly for audiences to be aware of them – later found that author of study had made up his findings.
Little damage inflicted in this context but research that seeks to manipulate public has evident ethical implications.

Question 33

Evaluate ethical implications (4)

Answer 33

Furthermore there is the issue of social control
America in 1920’s - large # of US states established legislations that led to compulsory sterilisations of many citizens as they were ‘feeble-minded’ so drain on society.
This included people deemed to have low intelligence, drug + alcohol addicts + mentally ill. The belief (one supported by many scientific + psych communities at that time) was that such people were unfit to breed.
Fact that socially sensitive research has been used to back discriminatory practices in the past acts as strong opposer for its widespread adoption + continuing of its research.