Aggression

Question 1

Outline neuronal and hormonal explanations for aggression

Answer 1

Limbic system - hypothalamus + amygdala. Regulates emotional behaviour e.g. aggression.
Amygdala impacts how we assess / respond to environmental threats - reactivity important predictor of aggressive behaviour.

Gospick et al (2011) - Ultimatum Game. Proposer offered to split money in certain way with Responder. If Responder accepted split, both received agreed amount of money; if rejected, both received nothing. Pps played as responders whilst having fMRI scans - when Responders rejected unfair offer, heightened response in amygdala.
When benzodiazepine (which reduces arousal of ANS) taken before game, it halved # of rejections (i.e. aggression) + decreased amygdala activity.

Healthy amount of serotonin prevents aggression -inhibitory effect on amygdala. Lower than normal levels can cause aggression - inhibitory effect does not occur + ppl act on impulses more frequently.

Testosterone, Sapolsky (1998) removing T source from different species resulted in lower levels of aggression whilst reinstating normal levels using injections led to return of aggressive behaviour.
When T levels at highest (21-35) there is increase in male to male aggressive behaviour (Daly + Wilson 1998)

Question 2

Evaluate the neural and hormonal explanations for aggression (1+)

Answer 2

Research support for role of amygdala in aggression. Pardini et al (2014) reduced amygdala volume - development of severe + persistent aggression.
Longitudinal study from childhood to adulthood - 56 male pps with history of violence subjected to MRI scans age 26. Pps with lower amygdala volumes showed higher levels of aggression / violence + relationship remained even after confounding variables controlled.
Lower amygdala volumes = violent responses more likely.

Question 3

Evaluate the neural and hormonal explanations for aggression (2-)

Answer 3

But amygdala doesn’t function on own in determining aggression.
Other structures e.g. OFC - plays role in self-control + inhibiting aggression. Coccaro et al (2007) - patients with psychiatric disorders that mainly featured aggression had reduced activity in OFC, disrupting impulse-control so leading to aggression.
Combined with findings by Gospick et al, this implies aggression regulation is highly complex + not caused by 1 structure but at least 3.

Question 4

Evaluate the neural and hormonal explanations for aggression (3+)

Answer 4

Support for the role of serotonin in aggression.
Mann et al (1990) dexfenfluramine to 35 healthy male pps (drug reduces serotonin levels so expect to see increase in aggression if theory correct)
Reduced levels did lead to increase in hostility + aggression scores in follow-up questionnaire

However only male pps used, so generalising to women deemed as androcentric.
Despite support for theory, research not fully comprehensive - failed to include women as pps.

Question 4

Evaluate the neural and hormonal explanations for aggression (4-)

Answer 4

Inconsistent evidence for role of testosterone.
Many studies show positive relationship between T + aggression but other studies show no such relationship.
E.g. no correlation found between T levels + actual violent behaviour amongst male inmates in prison. Self-report techniques may be skewed - social desirability bias perhaps to seem more ‘manly’
Effects of T still unclear.

Question 5

Outline the role of genetic factors in aggression

Answer 5

Coccaro et al (1997) predicted greater similarities in aggressive behaviour in MZ twins than DZ if aggression mostly influenced by genetic factors - MZ twins share 100% of DNA, whilst DZ share 50% so MZ twins more genetically similar than DZ.
Concordance rate of 50% for MZ + 19% for DZ twins found for physical aggression, 28% for MZ + 7% for DZ for verbal aggression.

Adoption studies:
*similarities between adopted child + bio parents suggests genetic influences dominating.
*similarities between adopted child + adoptive parents suggest environmental influences dominating.
Rhee + Waldman (2002) meta-analysis of adoption studies of direct aggression + anti-social behaviour: genetic influences accounted for 41% of variance in aggression, similar to findings from twin studies.

Monoamine oxidase (MAOA gene): MAOA breaks down neurotransmitters e.g. serotonin, into chemicals to be recycled.
But variant known as warrior gene leads to low MAOA activity in areas of the brain + associated with aggression.
Stuart et al (2014) 97 men in treatment programme - involved in inflicting IPV. Men with low-activity MAOA gene found as most violent offenders of IPV.

Gene-environment (GxE) interactions: genes work with environmental factors to impact level of aggression.
E.g. low MAOA gene variant only related to adult aggression when paired with early traumatic life events.
Those who did not experience childhood trauma did not have particularly high levels of aggression as adults even if they possessed MAOA gene variant. GxE follows diathesis stress model.

Question 6

Evaluate the role of genetic factors in aggression (1)

Answer 6

Difficult to isolate genetic factors from environmental factors to determine their influence.
McDermott et al (2009) pps with low-activity MAOA gene behaved aggressively in lab-based money allocation game, but only when provoked.
Outside of this they were no more / less aggressive than other pps.
Supports idea both influences have role in determining aggression - diatheses stress model.

Question 7

Evaluate the role of genetic factors in aggression (2)

Answer 7

Likely theres other genes involved in aggression.
Stuart et al’s study into IPV was not just with low activity variant of MAOA gene but also with serotonin transporter gene (5-HTT) - influences serotonin activity in the brain.
Combination of both these genes was found to be most closely linked to IPV.

Also research not e.g. Vassos et al (2014) meta-analysis found no association between any single gene + aggression.
Likely thousands of genes interact in complex ways to determine aggressive behaviour.

Question 8

Evaluate the role of genetic factors in aggression (3-)

Answer 8

Methods of measuring aggression differ between studies, from self-reports to direct observations.
Rhee + Waldman’s meta-analysis of 51 twin + adoption studies, genetic factors had greater influence on aggression in studies using self-reports than parent / teacher reports.
If research findings vary depending on how aggression is measured it becomes difficult to draw valid conclusions about role of genetic factors in determining aggression
Inconsistent results - low reliability

Question 9

Outline the evolutionary explanation of human aggression

Answer 9

Sexual jealousy major motivator of aggressive behaviour in males - men never sure if they have truly fathered child / experiencing cuckoldry.
Any investment into offspring that dont share male’s genes is waste of his resources + contributes to the survival of rival’s genes.

Daly + Wilson (1996) mate retention strategies which involve aggression + even physical violence:
Direct guarding (male vigilance over partner’s behaviour e.g. tracking apps on phone)
Negative inducements (e.g. issuing threats of dire consequences e.g. harming themselves if partner leaves).

Wilson et al (1995) women who self-reported mate retention strategies in partners were 2x as likely to have suffered physical violence from partners - 73% required medical attention + 53% said they feared for their lives.
Also frequency of violent acts towards pregnant women almost doubled those not pregnant - supports aggression toward women is way to avoid cuckoldry.

Shackelford et al (2005) studied intimate partner violence (IPV) in heterosexual couples. Men + women in 107 married couples married for less than year completed different questionnaires:
Men completed Mate Retention Inventory
Women completed Spouse Influence Report
Strong positive correlation found between men’s questionnaire + women’s – men who used retention strategies more likely to have also used physical violence against their partners.

Question 10

Evaluate the evolutionary explanation (1+)

Answer 10

Practical application.
If we know correlation is likely between mate retention strategies + aggression towards partners, specifically women, we can intervene to avoid it. Friends + family could notice early indicators of aggression + intervene with help of charities e.g. ‘Relate’

Question 11

Evaluate the evolutionary explanation (2+)

Answer 11

Explanation can account for gender differences.
Males engage more often in aggressive, especially physical, behaviour than women.
Campbell (1999) females with offspring less aggressive - puts her own + children’s survival at risk.
More adaptive strategy is to use verbal aggression to retain partner who provides resources + avoid life threatening situations (Buss + Shackleford 1997).
Ability to explain gender differences increases value of explanation.

Question 12

Evaluate the evolutionary explanation (3-)

Answer 12

Cultural differences.
!Kung San ppl of the Kalahari have negative attitude towards use of aggression - discouraged from childhood so rarely seen. Those who use it diminish own reputation within community.
In contrast, the Yanomamo of Venezuela + Brazil are described as ‘fierce ppl’ whose community accepts aggression + even requires it as behaviour in order to gain status in their highly structured society.
Can explain gender but not cultural differences

Question 13

Evaluate the evolutionary explanation (4-)

Answer 13

Methodological issues.
Difficult to test hypotheses about evolution of behaviour to solve problems of adaptation in our evolutionary past.
Most research is thus correlational, e.g. finding associations between mate retention behaviours + aggression.
Method does not allow us to draw cause + effect conclusions - questionable value of theory

Question 14

Outline the ethological explanation for aggression

Answer 14

Main function of aggression is adaptive – aggression beneficial to survival as defeated animals rarely killed but forced to establish territory elsewhere. So members of species spread out in wider areas + discover resources in other places - less competition = less starvation

Ritualistic aggression:
Lorenz - little physical damage in fights between animals of same species. Most aggressive encounters consisted of ritualistic signalling (e.g. displaying claws) + rarely reached physical state.
Also intra-species aggressive confrontations ended with ritual appeasement displays - indicated acceptance of defeat + stopped victor’s aggression, preventing damage to loser.
E.g. wolf displaying jugular vein to victor, deliberately making himself vulnerable - adaptive: if every aggressive encounter ended with death of one combatant, it could threaten entire species existence.

Innate releasing mechanisms (IRM) - bio structures in brain activated by external stimuli (e.g. certain facial expressions) that trigger fixed action patterns (FAP), a specific sequence of behaviours. Lea (1984) outlined 6 main features of FAP’s including:
Universal nature - same behaviour found in every individual of species
Single-purpose - behaviour only occurs in specific situation

Male sticklebacks territorial during mating season, developing red spots on underbelly. If another male enters their territory a FAP is initiated, triggered by sight of red spot (stimulus).
Tinbergen (1951) presented sticklebacks with wooden models of different shapes. Regardless of shape if model had red spot, stickleback would become aggressive + attack it. If no red spot there was no aggression even if model looked realistic.
FAPs were unchanging from one encounter to another, + once triggered it always ran its course to completion without further stimulus.

Question 15

Evaluate the ethological explanation (1+)

Answer 15

Supporting research
Brunner et al (1993) found low-activity variant of MAOA gene linked with aggressive behaviour, suggesting an innate basis.
Also limbic system provides for innate releasing mechanisms for aggression in brain + been shown to trigger aggressive behaviour in humans + animals.
Good internal validity

Question 16

Evaluate the ethological explanation (2-)

Answer 16

Evidence against ritualistic aggression.
Goodall (2010) male chimps in Tanzania from one community systematically slaughtered all members of another group. Victims held down by some of rival chimpanzees whilst others attacked for 20 mins - violence continued even when victims offered appeasement + defencelessness signals.
Signals did not inhibit aggressive behaviour of attacking chimps as predicted by explanation.
Suggests such predictions not valid for every aggressive encounter in animal world - lacks external validity.

Question 17

Evaluate the ethological explanation (3-)

Answer 17

FAP’s are not that fixed.
Hunt (1973) sequence of behaviours that appear to be fixed greatly influenced by environmental factors + learning experiences.
So FAP’s more flexible than originally implied - FAP typically made up of several aggressive behaviours in series + duration of each behaviour varies from one individual animal to another + even in same animal from one encounter to another.
Could argue some parts of explanation e.g. ritualistic aggression + FAP’s should be reviewed

Question 18

Evaluate the ethological explanation (4-)

Answer 18

Unjustified generalisation to humans.
Lorenz did not study mammals e.g. primates + Tinbergen chose not to study destructive violence that features in human aggression.
Nevertheless, both researchers made generalisations about aggressive behaviour to humans - another reason explanation should be reviewed.

Question 19

Outline the SLT of human aggression

Answer 19

Bandura - aggression can be learnt through direct reinforcement + indirectly through vicarious reinforcement
Children acquire aggressive behaviour by observing aggressive models e.g. parents / characters in media. Child works out how aggressive behaviour is performed + notices consequences of behaviour to determine if its worthy to be imitated
if model rewarded, child learns aggression effective in getting what they want. Vicarious reinforcement makes it likely child will imitate model.
If consequence negative / punished, child less likely to imitate

4 cognitive conditions needed for observational learning:
Attention - observer watches closely to model’s aggressive actions
Retention - observer remembers aggressive actions to form a mental representation of how behaviour was performed.
Motivation – reason one wishes to imitate behaviour - depends on expectations if behaving aggressively will be rewarding.
Motor-reproduction - observer transforms mental representation of aggressive behaviour into physical actions + considers own ability to do so.

Self-efficacy - extent to which we believe our actions will achieve desired goal. Child’s confidence in aggressive ability increases as they learn it can bring rewards.
Bandura et al (1961) young children observing adult model aggressive behaviour towards Bobo doll (kicking, hitting with mallet + verbal abuse) Observation followed by a period where children not allowed to play with attractive toys - to increase their frustration. Then taken to room with Bobo doll + other toys including mallet model had used.

Many imitated behaviour they saw model perform both physically + verbally. Closeness of imitation striking with same use of objects + verbal phrases + boys more aggressive than girls.
Aggression non-existent in other group of children who observed adult interacting non-aggressively.

Question 20

Evaluate the SLT of human aggression (1-)

Answer 20

Underestimates influence of bio factors
Boys more aggressive in hitting Bobo Doll than girls - hormonal factors e.g. higher levels of T, linked with increased aggressive behaviour.
Other important reasons for behaviour not been accounted to explain aggression - not a fully comprehensive explanation

Question 21

Evaluate the SLT of human aggression (2+)

Answer 21

Real life application - role of media in influencing aggression.
Research - media portrayals of aggressive behaviour powerful influences on child’s acquisition of aggression.
Especially true if character rewarded for being aggressive + child identifies with them in some way (e.g. they have appealing traits of being funny / smart.) Under these conditions vicarious reinforcement of observing violent behaviours by media characters just as influential in encouraging imitation as in real life.

Question 22

Evaluate the SLT of human aggression (3+)

Answer 22

Possible to solve issue with implementation of non-aggressive models.
SLT argues ppl shape own aggressive behaviour by selecting their surroundings (reciprocal determinism)
One way to decrease aggression is to break cycle in which ppl become more aggressive by choosing situations which reward their behaviour. Encouraging aggressive children to form friendships with children who dont behave aggressively gives more opportunities to model non-aggressive behaviour

Question 23

Evaluate the SLT of human aggression (4-)

Answer 23

Cultural differences of how aggression is perceived.
Cultures e.g. !Kung San of Kalahari desert, direct reinforcement of children’s aggression unlikely - social norms don’t encourage it + parents don’t use it to discipline children.
So models of aggression unavailable for children to observe - vicarious reinforcement is rare experience. Nevertheless, they display aggressive behaviour even without observation.
SLT cannot explain these cultural differences - lacks generalisability to a wider population.

Question 24

Outline research into frustration – aggression hypothesis as an explanation of aggression

Answer 24

John Dollard et al (1939) frustration aggression hypothesis - anger + violence always outcome when prevented from achieving goals (i.e. frustration).
Frustration always leads to aggression + aggression always result of frustration.
Hypothesis based on psychodynamic concept of catharsis - aggression satisfies initial frustration felt + reduces bio drive making further aggression less likely

Aggression not always expressed directly against source for 3 reasons:
Cause of frustration may be abstract (e.g. government);
Cause may be too powerful + risk punishment by aggressing against it (e.g. teacher giving you a lower grade than expected)
Cause may be unavailable at time (e.g. teacher left before you realised what grade you got.)
Aggression displaced onto alternative source that is not abstract, weaker + available.

Russell Green (1968) effects of frustration on aggression. Male uni students given jigsaw puzzle to complete but level of frustration manipulated in 1 of 3 ways.
G1: puzzle impossible to solve.
G2: ran out of time - student (confederate) kept interfering.
G3: confederate insulted pps as failed to solve puzzle.
Pps required to give electric shocks to confederate when they made mistake on another task.
Insulted pps gave strongest shocks, followed by interfered group, then impossible task pps. All 3 gave higher shocks than non-frustrated control group.

Environmental cues: Berkowitz (1989) presence of aggressive cues in enviro make acting on aggression more likely.
Pps given electric shock by confederate in lab situation - creates anger + frustration. Pps then allowed to give electric shocks to confederate. # of shocks given depended on presence / absence of weapons in lab.
In 1 condition, 2 guns present on table - average # of shocks 6.07.
When no guns present average # 4.67. ‘Weapons-effect’ supports Berkowitz’s

Question 25

Evaluate research into frustration – aggression hypothesis as an explanation of aggression (1+)

Answer 25

Research support
Marcus-Newhall (2000) meta-analysis 49 studies of displaced aggression, a key component of frustration-aggression hypothesis.
Studies investigated situations where aggressive behaviour had to be directed at target other than original stimuli. Pps who were provoked but unable to retaliate against source significantly more likely to aggress against innocent party than ppl who not provoked.
Same outcome predicted by frustration-aggression hypothesis

Question 26

Evaluate research into frustration – aggression hypothesis as an explanation of aggression (2-)

Answer 26

Other concepts of hypothesis are questionable. Bushman (2002) pps who vented anger by repeatedly hitting punchbag became more angry + aggressive rather than less - doing nothing more effective at reducing aggression.
Yet venting is advice many therapists give to clients.
Results opposes predictions made by hypothesis - casts doubt on validity of central assumption

Question 27

Evaluate research into frustration – aggression hypothesis as an explanation of aggression (3)

Answer 27

Negative effect theory is better explanation.
Research shows frustration does not always lead to aggression + aggression can occur without frustration. Hypothesis reformulated by Berkowitz (1989) - aggression caused by negative feelings in general e.g. jealousy + pain, rather than by frustration specifically.

Also outcome of frustration can be range of responses, only 1 of which is aggression
E.g. frustration experienced in getting low grade may be more so anxiety, helplessness / determination.
Negative effect theory more comprehensive

Question 28

Outline de-individuation

Answer 28

Individual loses personal identity + takes on identity of social group when, e.g. in crowd / wearing uniform.
Frees individual from constraints of social norms + responsibility for their actions.

Darkness, drugs + alcohol, uniforms + disguises - cause anonymity + provides fewer opportunities for others to judge us negatively.
Not anonymity itself that increase likelihood of aggression, but consequences of anonymity

Private self-awareness: how we pay attention to own feelings + behaviour - reduced when in crowd as attention becomes focused on events around us rather than own beliefs making us less self-critical of ourselves - de-individuated state.
Public self-awareness: how much we care about other people’s opinions of our behaviour - reduced in crowds. Individual’s behaviour amongst many less likely to be judged negatively - less accountable for our aggressive actions.

Dodd (1985) classroom exercise to show link between anonymity, de-individuation + aggressive behaviour. 229 undergrad psych students asked “If you could do anything with complete assurance that you would not be held responsible, what would you do?”. 3 independent raters who didn’t know hypothesis decided which categories of antisocial behaviour responses belonged to. 36% form of antisocial behaviour, 26% actual criminal acts, most common being robbing a bank. Some said murder, rape / assassination of criminal figure, 9% prosocial responses.

Question 29

Evaluate de-individuation as an explanation for aggression (1-)

Answer 29

Lack of support - de-individuation not always lead to aggression
Gergen et al (1973) ‘Deviance in dark’ study, groups of 8 pps all strangers to each other. Pps in completely darkened room for 1h + allowed to do anything
Impossible to identify one another + assured would never encounter each other.
Pps quickly did amorous activities e.g. kissing + touching intimately. Study repeated - this time pps see each other after the hour - significant decline in amount of amorous activities
Despite de-individuation, aggression not shown in either condition - state combined with anonymity does not always predict aggressive consequence.

Question 30

Evaluate de-individuation as an explanation for aggression (2-)

Answer 30

De-individuation leads to prosocial behaviour as well. Study - female pps gave fake electric shocks to confederate. In 1 condition pps dressed in KKK type outfits with masks hiding faces, in 2, dressed as nurses + in control group they wore own clothes.
Compared to control group, KKK pps gave more frequent + intense electric shocks, nurses gave fewer at lower levels.
Nurses also more compassionate towards ‘victim’ - in line with prosocial role associated with nurse uniform.
Both aggression + prosocial behaviour outcomes of de-individuation - not guaranteed to just be negative

Question 31

Evaluate de-individuation as an explanation for aggression (3+)

Answer 31

Real life application
Theory helps understand aggressive behaviour in online gaming services - reduction in personal identity by using ‘handles’ - may promote state of de-individuation.
Research: strong correlation between anonymity + sending hostile messages - more aggressive messages sent by those who hid real identities.
Support for link between anonymity, de-individuation + aggressive behaviour.

Question 32

Discuss explanations of institutional aggression in the context of prisons (dispositional)

Answer 32

Dispositional explanations - behaviour takes place within social context of prison / other formal organised setting.

E.g. importation model by Irwin + Cressey (1962) -prisoners bring aspects of real world with them to prisons e.g. beliefs, race + learning experiences. Inmates who use violence inside prisons reflects lives before imprisoned - use to establish power, status + resources.
Aggression product of individual characteristics, not prison environment – inmates predisposed to violence, will do so in any setting.

DeLisi et al (2011) 813 juvenile delinquents in institutions, California. Inmates brought many neg dispositional features into confinement e.g. childhood trauma, histories of violent behaviour + drug usage. Inmates more likely to engage in suicidal activity + sexual misconduct + did more physical violence compared to control group inmates with fewer neg dispositional features.

Question 33

Evaluate explanations of institutional aggression in the context of prisons (dispositional) (1+)

Answer 33

Research support.
561 male inmates with similar criminal histories. ½ placed in low security Californian prisons, other ½ in second-highest category of prisons.
33% in low security + 36% in higher category prisons involved in aggressive misconduct within 2 years - difference not statistically significant.
So features of prison environment significantly less important predictors of aggressive behaviour than characteristics of inmates.
Strong evidence - study is field experiment with random allocation of inmates to prisons of different security levels - more valid conclusions than correlation studies / natural exps.

Question 34

Evaluate explanations of institutional aggression in the context of prisons (dispositional) (2-)

Answer 34

Alternative explanation.
Dilulio (1991) - importation model is inadequate explanation - ignores role of factors relating to running of prisons.
He proposes administrative control model (ACM): poorly managed prisons more likely to experience most serious forms of inmate violence e.g rioting
Poor management characterised by indecisive leadership, unofficial rules + few opportunities for education - factors more influential in determining aggression than inmate characteristics.

Question 35

Discuss explanations of institutional aggression in the context of prisons (situational)

Answer 35

Situational explanation - cause of behaviour is within environment + may include other ppl

E.g. deprivation model by Clemmer (1958) - harsh prison conditions e.g. deprived of freedom, goods + safety stressful for inmates - cope by resorting to aggression.
Deprivation of material goods specifically increases competition + so increases aggression to obtain them. Also, prison regime is unpredictable - regular ‘lock ups’ to control behaviour - frustrating - aggression.

Steiner (2009) factors predicting inmate aggression in 512 US prisons. Inmate-on-inmate violence more common in prisons with higher proportion of female staff, African-American + Hispanic inmates + inmates in protective custody for own safety.
All prison-level factors - independent of individual characteristics of prisoners. Factors reliably predicted aggressive behaviour in line with deprivation model.

Question 36

Evaluate explanations of institutional aggression in the context of prisons (situational) (1-)

Answer 36

Contradictory research.
Deprivation model - lack of freedom + heterosexual contact could lead to high levels of aggressive behaviour but evidence does not support this.
Hensley et al (2002) 256 males + female inmates of 2 prisons in Mississippi (state allows conjugal visits).
No link between visits + reduced aggressive behaviour - situational factors do not affect prison violence.

Question 37

Evaluate explanations of institutional aggression in the context of prisons (situational) (2+)

Answer 37

But there may be research support.
McCorkle et al (1995) 371 US prisons - situational factors e.g. overcrowding, lack of privacy significantly influenced inmate-on-inmate + inmate-on-staff assaults.
Franklin et al (2006) meta-analysis: crowded prisons higher amounts of aggressive behaviour in younger inmates (18-25) than other groups - T at peak
Some evidence that aggression is cause of situational factors, or at least is heightened by them

Question 38

Evaluate explanations of institutional aggression in the context of prisons (dispositional and situational) (3)

Answer 38

Interactionist approach better to explain aggression
Importation + deprivation model supported + challenged by evidence. Jiang et al (2002) importation model better at explaining violence between inmates, whilst deprivation model better at explaining violence against prison staff.
More comprehensive explanation - could argue importation model required to trigger deprivation model - both work together to influence levels of aggressions in prisons.

Question 39

Discuss media influences on aggression

Answer 39

Desensitisation: repeated exposure to violence reduces normal levels of physiological + psych arousal associated with anxiety, making aggressive behaviour more likely.
Arousal: increased heart rate + blood pressure but desensitisation habituates us to violence
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Weisz and Earls (1995) pps watch Straw Dogs - contains graphic rape scene. Pps then watched re-enactment of rape trial. Compared with those who watched non-sexually violent film, male viewers of Straw Dogs more accepting of sexual aggression.
Expressed less sympathy towards rape victim + less likely to find defendant guilty. No such effect on female pps

Disinhibition: normal social constraints against certain behaviours weakened by environmental triggers. Behaviours then appear to be temporarily socially acceptable so more likely to occur.
If aggressive behaviour appears normative in such media, especially if effects of violence on victims is minimised, it is deemed justifiable.
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Not unusual for video games to reward players for showing violence whilst minimising consequences – creates new social norms for viewer

Cognitive priming: violent images provide ready-made scripts about aggression stored in memory - triggered when we perceive aggressive cues in situation.
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Research - pps listen to songs with derogatory lyrics about women. Compared with when they listened to neutral lyrics, pps recalled more negative qualities about women + behaved more aggressively towards female confederate.
Replicated with female pps using men-hating lyrics – produced similar results.

Question 40

Evaluate media influences on aggression (1+)

Answer 40

Research support for desenitisation
Pps shown violent + non-violent clips whilst measuring physiological arousal using skin conductance.
Pps who were habitual violence viewers reported higher levels of pleasant arousal + lower levels of anxious arousal.
Findings reflects ideas desensitisation explains of effects of violence + greater willingness to be aggressive.

Question 41

Evaluate media influences on aggression (2-)

Answer 41

Study failed to find link between media viewing, lower arousal + provoked aggression.
Suggests desensitisation cannot explain impact of violent media exposure on all forms of aggressive behaviour
More valid explanation is catharsis – psychodynamic theory that viewing violent media allows people to release aggressive impulses without need to behave violently.

Question 42

Evaluate media influences on aggression (3+)

Answer 42

Support for disinhibition
Pps who saw film depicting aggression as vengeance gave more fake electric shocks of longer duration to confederate.
Suggests media may disinhibit aggressive behaviour when presented as justified – vengeance powerful justification for violence - more socially acceptable.
Validity to disinhibition - shows link between removal of social constraints + aggressive behaviour.

Question 42

Evaluate media influences on aggression (4+)

Answer 42

Practical application of cognitive priming.
Bushman and Anderson (2002) someone who habitually watches violent media accesses stored aggressive scripts more readily - more likely to interpret cues as aggressive + resort to violent solution / fail to consider alternatives.
Effective interventions reduce aggressive behaviour by challenging hostile cognitive biases + encouraging alternatives to aggression e.g. humour / negotiation.

Question 43

Describe research into the effects of computer games on aggression (lab-based study)

Answer 43

Research lab study - pps played either violent computer game (Mortal Kombat) / non-violent game (PGA Tournament Golf) for 10 minutes. Then completed Taylor Competitive Reaction Time Task (TCRTT), lab measure of aggression in which students delivered blasts of white noise at chosen volumes to punish (non-existent) opponent.
Pps who played violent game chose much higher noise levels (5.97 decibels) compared to non-violent players (4.60)

Question 44

Evaluate research into the effects of computer games on aggression (1)

Answer 44

Experimental studies allow us to establish casual link between media aggression + aggressive behaviour.
But measures of aggression in lab situations often artificial e.g. TCRTT. Also no fear of retaliation in pps as experimenter gives ppt permission to be ‘safely’ aggressive + opponent is never real person.
Unethical to allow realistic forms of aggression so researcher has no other option but to use lab studies to measure aggression.

Question 45

Discuss research into the effects of computer games on aggression (correlational studies)

Answer 45

Correlational studies also used to research effects of games on aggression.
DeLisi et al (2013) 227 juvenile delinquents with history of aggressive behaviour e.g. hitting a teacher
Structured interviews - gathered data on several measures of aggression + violent computer game-playing - offender’s aggressive behaviour significantly correlated with how often they played violent computer games + how much they enjoyed them.

Question 46

Evaluate research into the effects of computer games on aggression (correlational studies) (2)

Answer 46

Can investigate realistic aggression forms e.g. violent crime.
But inability to draw cause + effect conclusions: no variables manipulated / controlled + no random allocation to violent / non-violent media conditions. Also, outcome of positive correlation between viewing violent media + aggression does not help choose between 2 competing hypothesis:
Socialisation hypothesis - aggressive media causes ppl to become more aggressive
Selection hypothesis - ppl already aggressive select aggressive media
Direction of causality cannot be determined from correlational studies

Question 47

Discuss research into the effects of computer games on aggression (longitudinal studies)

Answer 47

Robertson et al (2013) 1037 ppl born in New Zealand in 1972 + 1973 - measured TV viewing hours at regular intervals up to age of 26 years.
Time spent watching TV reliable predictor of aggressive behaviour in adulthood, measured in terms of convictions for aggressive crimes.

Those who watched most TV also more likely to be diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder + aggressive personality traits.
Most important factor was amount of TV watched rather than whether / not it was violent media.

Question 48

Evaluate research into the effects of computer games on aggression (longitudinal studies) (3)

Answer 48

Use longitudinal studies to investigate changes in aggressive behaviour over time - views ppl as active consumers rather than passive recipients
But studying change over time leads to confounding variables - many aggressive sources interact with media influences e.g. role models like friends / family - difficult to separate + assess contributions of each

Question 49

Discuss research into the effects of computer games on aggression (meta-analysis)

Answer 49

Anderson et al (2010) meta-analysis of 136 studies using all 3 methodologies outlined - found exposure to violent computer games led to increase in aggressive behaviours, thought + feelings.

True for both men + women in individualistic + collectivist cultures.

Question 50

Evaluate research into the effects of computer games on aggression (meta-analysis) (4)

Answer 50

Although meta-analyses provide summary of findings, there is tendency for them to undergo publication bias.
Unaware if results from meta-analysis have accounted for other findings perhaps not in line with what majority have published.