Gender

Question 1

Outline the role of chromosomes and hormones in sex and gender

Answer 1

Chromosomes made from DNA
23 pairs of chromosomes 23rd pair determines bio sex. Females XX Males XY.
Genes - short DNA sections determines characteristic SRY gene causes testes to develop in XY embryo, which produce androgens (male sex hormones). Androgens cause embryo to become male, without them embryo develops into female.

Hormones chemical substances that circulate in blood, control activity of certain cells + organs.
E.g. male hormone T controls development of male sex organs + produced at around 8 weeks of foetal development.
T links with aggression - Nanne Van de Poll et al (1988) female rats injected with T became more physically + sexually active.

Oestrogen female hormone controls female sexual characteristics + menstruation. Physical changes + heightened irritability during menstrual cycle - pre-menstrual tension (PMT) / syndrome (PMS) if effects become diagnosable disorder. PMS successfully used as defence in shoplifting + even murder.

Oxytocin. Woman typically produce more than men, particularly after giving birth - hormone stimulates lactation allowing mothers to breastfeed. Also reduces stress cortisol + facilitates bonding – known as love hormone. Evidence suggests both sexes produce oxytocin in roughly equal amounts in amorous activities e.g. sexual intercourse.

Question 2

Evaluate the role of chromosomes and hormones in sex and gender (1+)

Answer 2

Supporting evidence - David Reimer case.
Bruce + Brian Reimer twins born in 1965 – following horrific circumcision operation accident Bruce left without penis.
Parents found psychologist John Money developing gender neutrality theory – that bio sex less important than enviro influence in establishing gender identity.
Instructed by Money, Bruce (now Brenda) raised in a stereotypically feminine way e.g. dressed in feminine clothing + toys. Brenda never adjusted to female life, + after told truth on accident he went back to living as a man (now David) . But in 2004 he committed suicide. So chromosomes + bio / nature stronger than nurture.

Question 3

Evaluate the role of chromosomes and hormones in sex and gender (2-)

Answer 3

Contradictory evidence.
Tricker et al (1996) double blind study 43 males given weekly T injection / placebo - no significant differences in aggression after 10 weeks between 2 groups
Similarly other studies show sex hormones had no consistent effect on gender related behaviour. Many studies of bio factors in gender involve small samples of unusual people / conducted on animals limiting extent to which meaningful generalisations can be made.

Question 4

Evaluate the role of chromosomes and hormones in sex and gender (3-)

Answer 4

Overemphasis on nature.
If gender identity purely down to bio one expects to find more differences in male + female behaviour than there actually are - researchers found more differences within sexes than between them.
Alternative explanations e.g. SLT points to importance of social context in learning of our gender identity + gender role. Influence of social norms explains cross cultural differences in general behaviour e.g. western society men + women gradually becoming more androgynous in behaviour.

Question 5

Outline the psychodynamic explanation of gender development

Answer 5

Gender development occurs in phallic stage 3 to 5 years of age.

Oedipus complex: boys develop incestuous feelings towards mum + murderous hatred for dad who stands in way of boy possessing mum.
Boy recognise dad more powerful than him - develops castration anxiety - results in boy giving up + begins to identify with dad, the aggressor.

Electra complex: at same time girls experience penis envy - themselves + mum in competition for dads love. Double-resentment towards mum - as rival standing in way of possessing dad + blaming mum for castrating her own + her daughter’s penis.

Concept from Carl Jung - explains over time girls accept they will never have penis + substitute envy for desire to have children instead identifying with mum as a result.

Both identify with same-sex parent to resolve conflicts + adopt desirable characteristics of them receiving ‘second-hand’ gender identity at end of phallic stage.

Question 6

Evaluate the psychodynamic explanation of gender development (1-)

Answer 6

Inadequate account of female development.
Freud focused exclusively on Oedipus complex whilst female experience undertaken by Carl Jung.
But ideas Freud did claim are questionable e.g. penis envy criticised for reflecting patriarchal Victorian era in which ideas were born.
Horney: more powerful emotion than penis envy is male experience of womb envy – reaction men have to woman’s ability to nurture + sustain life.
Penis envy like womb envy cultural concept rather than innate trait + challenged idea that female gender development founded on desire to be like men – androcentric assumption.

Question 7

Evaluate the psychodynamic explanation of gender development (2-)

Answer 7

Lack of support for Oedipus complex
Sons of punitive + harsh fathers should go on to develop more robust sense of gender identity than others as higher levels of anxiety should produce stronger identification with aggressor.
But theory not supported - reverse seems to be true: boys with more liberal fathers tend to be more secure in masculine identity (Blakemore and Hill 2008).
So Oedipus complex lacks internal validity - limits status as reputable explanation

Question 8

Evaluate the psychodynamic explanation of gender development (3-)

Answer 8

Cannot be applied to family types apart from nuclear
Relies on child having 2 parents of different genders so they’re able to manage Oedipus + Electra complex effectively. So raised in non-nuclear family should have adverse effects on gender development but evidence doesn’t support this
Golombok et al (1983) - children from single-parent families developed normal gender identities.
Green (1978) - 37 children raised by gay/ transsexual parents - discovered only one had gender identity described as non-typical.
Suggests such ideas also lack external validity and application - further reduces status

Question 9

Evaluate the psychodynamic explanation of gender development (4-)

Answer 9

Lack of scientific rigour.
Unconscious nature of concepts are untestable -contrasts with other explanations e.g. bio approach, based on objective, verifiable evidence from controlled laboratory studies.
Ideographic methods - case study of Little Hans generalised to rest of the population
Karl Popper (1959) - makes Freud’s theory pseudoscience as his ideas cannot be falsified

Question 10

Outline the measuring of androgyny

Answer 10

Androgyny - displaying balance of masc + fem characteristic e.g. man/woman competitive + aggressive at work but caring + sensitive parent.

Bem’s Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) - first systematic attempt to measure androgyny using scale of 60 traits (20 masc, 20 fem, 20 neut) to produce scored across 2 dimensions: masc-fem + androg-undifferentiated
.
BSRI developed by giving 200 traits to 50 undergrad men + 50 undergrad women to determine most desirable traits. Top 20 chosen from masc + fem traits + 20 neutral added to act as distractions.

Respondents asked to rate themselves using 7-point Likert scale (1 is ‘never true’ + 7 is ‘always true’) on each trait. Scores then calculated + classified on the 2 dimensions. Traits e.g. cheerful, aggressive, affectionate, loyal.

Question 11

Evaluate the measuring of androgyny (1+)

Answer 11

Scale appears to be valid + reliable.
Bem did not make up traits included herself – used scores of 100 male + female undergrads to create it. BSRI also piloted with over 1000 students + results broadly corresponded with pps own description of their gender identity = internal + face validity.
Follow-up study involving smaller sample of same students revealed similar scores when students tested month later - suggests scale has high test-retest reliability

Question 12

Evaluate the measuring of androgyny (2-)

Answer 12

Association between androgyny + psychological well-being.
Bem emphasised idea that androgynous individuals more psychologically healthy - best placed to deal with situations demanding masc/fem/androg response.
But assumption has been challenged – argue ppl who display greater proportion of masc traits better adjusted as these are more highly valued in Western society (Adams + Sherer 1985).
Implies that Bem’s research may not have taken adequate account of social + cultural context in which it was developed.

Question 13

Evaluate the measuring of androgyny (3-)

Answer 13

Gender identity too complex to be reduced to single score - BSRI’s attempt at this is illogical.
Alternatives to BSRI developed e.g. Personal Attribute Questionnaire (PAQ): replaces Bem’s masc-fem dimension with one measuring instrumentality + expressivity.
But like BSRI, PAQ still based on idea gender identity can be quantified - also oversimplifies complex concept.

Question 14

Evaluate the measuring of androgyny (4-)

Answer 14

Cultural + historic bias.
BSRI developed over 40 years ago - acceptable behaviours in relation to gender changed significantly since then.
Scale made up of stereotypical ideas of masc + fem may be outdated + irrelevant now - lacking in temp validity.
Also scale devised using panel of judges from US, but Western ideologies of masculinity + femininity may not be shared across all cultures / societies (e.g. Tchambuli woman dominant + active but Tchambuli men less responsible + passive (Mead 1935))

Question 15

Outline Kohlberg’s theory of gender development

Answer 15

Child’s understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated with age - when brain matures, so does thinking.

Gender identity (around 2): children correctly identify themselves as boy/girl + can label others as such
Understanding of gender doesn’t stretch much beyond labelling - often not aware sex is permanent.

Gender stability (around 4): understand own gender is fixed + they still be male/female when older.
Unable to apply logic to others + often confused by external changes in physical appearance.

Gender constancy (around 6): realise gender is consistent over time + situations - begin to identify with ppl of own gender + behaving in gender appropriate ways.

Question 16

Evaluate Kohlberg’s theory of gender development (1+)

Answer 16

Supporting evidence for sequence of stages.
Slaby + Frey (1975) showed children split-screen images of males + females performing same task. Younger children spent same time watching both sexes, children in gender constancy stage spent longer looking at model same sex as them
Kohlberg was right - children who have constancy actively seek out gender appropriate models.
Munroe et al (1984): cross-cultural evidence of theory in various countries e.g. Kenya, Nepal + Samoa - universality and relevance across the globe.

Question 17

Evaluate Kohlberg’s theory of gender development (2-)

Answer 17

Methodological issues
Kohlberg’s theory developed using interviews with children in some cases as young as 2/3 - questions tailored towards particular age group dealt with, but very young children may lack vocabulary to express their understanding.
I.e. may possess complex ideas about gender but don’t have verbal ability to articulate these.
What children express does not = to understanding -some stages mentioned may not have internal validity

Question 18

Evaluate Kohlberg’s theory of gender development (3-)

Answer 18

Gender constancy not supported - many demonstrate gender-appropriate behaviour before gender constancy achieved.
Bussey + Bandura (1992): children as young as 4 reported feeling good about playing with gender appropriate toys + bad when doing opposite.
^ Contradict Kohlberg’s theory but support gender schema theory – children begin to absorb gender appropriate info as they identify themselves as either male/female.

Question 19

Outline SLT in relation to gender

Answer 19

Direct reinforcement - children more likely to be reinforced for demonstrating gender appropriate behaviour e.g. boys encouraged to be active, assertive + engage in rough play + punished for being passive + gentle / staying close to parent.
Differential reinforcement: way boys + girls encouraged to show distinct gender appropriate behaviour - through this child learns gender identity.

Indirect/vicarious reinforcement - if consequences of another person’s behaviour favourable, behaviour more likely imitated e.g. girl sees mum receive compliment when wearing makeup, she may replicate behaviour. If consequence is unfavourable e.g. punished, behaviour less likely to be imitated e.g. boy sees male classmate teased for showing feminine behaviour - unlikely to be copied.

Role models - ppl child identifies with as they possess qualities child sees as rewarding + ‘like’ child. May be in immediate environment e.g. parents/teachers / present within media e.g. pop stars. Usually same sex as child.

4 mediational processes
Attention: focuses on action they wishes to imitate.
e.g. little boy wants to copy favourite football, focuses on what he does
Retention: remember way in which action produced.
e.g. remembering skills showed on pitch + tries to reproduce these
Motivation: Reason why they want to perform action.
e.g. wants to be like hero (identification)
Motor reproduction: physically being capable to do it.

Question 20

Evaluate SLT in relation to gender (1+)

Answer 20

Supporting evidence.
Research conducted 4 - 6 month old babies who , irrespective of actual sex, dressed 1/2 time in boys clothes + 1/2 time in girls clothes.
Observed interacting with adults, babies assumed to be boys given a hammer shaped rattle + encouraged to be adventurous/active. Same babies dressed as girls - handed cuddly doll, frequently told they were pretty + reinforced for being passive.
So gender appropriate behaviour established at early age through differential reinforcement supports SLT

Question 21

Evaluate SLT in relation to gender (2+)

Answer 21

Can explain change in gender roles in Western society.
When explaining androgyny there’s less of clear distinction between what’s regarded as stereotypically masc + fem behaviour in society today than in 1950s.
Explained by shift in social expectations + cultural norms - has meant new forms of acceptable gender behaviour have been reinforced.
There’s been no corresponding change in ppls basic bio within same period so shift much better explained by SLT than bio approach.
Useful + good applicability of SLT

Question 22

Evaluate SLT in relation to gender (3)

Answer 22

In comparison with bio approach SLT only considers enviro role in gender development.
David Reimer case - not possible to raise bio male as female + override chromosomal influence.
But SLT + thus nurture also proven to be effective in explaining gender development.
Modern researchers likely to accept biosocial theory of gender: there are innate bio differences between boys + girls reinforced through social interaction + cultural expectations.

Question 23

Outline Klinefelter’s syndrome as an atypical sex chromosome pattern

Answer 23

Atypical sex chromosome patterns are any patterns that deviate from the usual XX or XY formation.

Klinefelter’s syndrome affect bio males with addition of one X to chromosome pattern – structure is XXY.

Physical effects: reduced body hair in comparison to most males, softened body contours, long gangly limbs + underdeveloped genitals.
Sufferers also susceptible to health problems commonly found in women e.g. breast cancer.

Psych effects: poorly developed language skills + reading ability + shy, passive character + lack of interest in sexual activity. Tend not to respond well to stressful situations + issues with memory + problem solving.

Question 24

Outline Turner’s syndrome as an atypical sex chromosome pattern

Answer 24

Turner’s syndrome affects bio females. Absence of one of two allotted X chromosomes - structure is X0. So individual has 45 chromosomes instead of 46.

Physical effects: no menstrual cycle - ovaries fail to develop, leaving them to be sterile. Don’t develop breasts during puberty - instead have broad shield like chest, low set of ears + webbed neck

Psych effects: higher than average reading ability but spatial, memory + mathematical tasks lower than normal. Sufferers tend to be socially immature + have trouble relating to peers.

Question 25

Evaluate atypical sex chromosome patterns (1+)

Answer 25

Studies on patterns contribute to understanding of nature-nurture debate
Comparing ppl who have condition with chromosome-typical individuals, possible to see psych + behavioural differences between 2 groups
E.g. finding that ppl with Turner’s syndrome have higher verbal ability + talk more than ‘typical’ girls.
So logically inferred these differences have a bio basis + direct result of abnormal chromosomal structure
Nature influences powerful effect on psych + behaviour.

Question 26

Evaluate atypical sex chromosome patterns (2-)

Answer 26

But enviro + social influences may be more influential.
Social immaturity observed in females with Turner’s syndrome may come from how they’re treated immaturely by ppl around them: parents + teachers may react to pre-pubescent appearances in way that encourages immaturity.
Can have indirect impact on their performance, + perhaps reason behind specific learning + development problems linked with syndrome
Wrong to assume observed psych + behavioural differences are only due to nature.

Question 27

Evaluate atypical sex chromosome patterns (3-)

Answer 27

Caution should be taken when drawing results from unusual + unrepresentative samples - lack of generalisability to wider pop.
Individuals who look different due to unusual chromosomes unlikely to be treated same way as peers - makes it difficult to try to assess relative contributions of nature + nurture in terms of behavioural + psych differences.

Question 28

Evaluate atypical sex chromosome patterns (4+)

Answer 28

Continued research into atypical sex chromosome patterns likely to lead to earlier + more accurate diagnoses of both syndromes.
Australian study 87 individuals with Klinefelter’s syndrome - those identified + treated from very young age had significant benefits compared to those diagnosed in adulthood.
Suggests increased awareness of conditions has practical application + can help sufferers integrate with society + get help they need.

Question 29

Outline the influence of media on gender roles

Answer 29

Media provides role models with whom children may identify with + imitate. Children likely to select models who are same sex as they are + engage in gender-appropriate behaviour - more likely to be reinforced.

Bussey + Bandura (1999) media provide rigid gender stereotypes: men are independent, ambitious + advice-givers whilst women are dependent, unambitious + advice-seekers.

In other research focusing on TV ads, men more likely shown in autonomous roles within professional contexts whereas women seen occupying familial roles in domestic setting – suggests media plays role in reinforcing widespread social stereotypes.

Children who have more exposure to popular media forms tend to display more gender-stereotypical views in behaviour + attitudes (McGhee and Frueh 1980). Perhaps due to what Bandura referred to as self-efficacy: seeing others perform gender-appropriate behaviours increases child’s belief that they’re capable of carrying out such behaviours in future.

Question 30

Evaluate the influence of media on gender roles (1)

Answer 30

Media has considerable influence on formation + maintenance of children’s gender role stereotypes, but difficult to establish cause + effect relationship within studies
Media outputs could reflect prevailing social norms of males + females. Alternatively media itself could cause norms by depicting men + women in particular ways.
Testing theories is difficult - majority of children exposed to media on regular basis, so control groups of children beyond such influence not available for comparison - could make direction of media’s influence easier to establish.
Correlation established between media + gender roles, but not causation

Question 31

Evaluate the influence of media on gender roles (2)

Answer 31

Most research focused on how general effect of media has been to reinforce gender stereotypes.
But there’s been progress of counter-stereotypes in media e.g. Disney movie Brave - challenges traditional notions of masculinity + femininity.
But Pingree (1978) found gender stereotyping reduced when children were shown TV adverts featuring women in non-stereotypical roles. But also found pre-adolescent boy stereotypes became stronger following exposure to non-traditional role models.

Question 32

Outline the influence of culture on gender roles

Answer 32

Mead (1935) studied tribal groups on island of New Guinea. Tchambuli women dominant as they organised village life whilst men were passive + considered to be decorative - reverse of western stereotype. Suggests there may not be direct bio relationship between sex + gender + gender roles may be culturally determined.
Argued that Mead underestimated universal nature of many gender typical behaviours, but she claims extent to which innate behaviours are expressed is largely result of cultural norms.

Also cross cultural similarities in gender roles.
Research found consistent patterns in mate preference in 37 countries across all continents. In all cultures women sought men with wealth + resources, men looked for youth + physical attractiveness.
Munroe + Munroe (1975) division of labour is organised along gender lines - males typically breadwinners + females often nurtures.

Question 33

Evaluate the influence of culture on gender roles (1-)

Answer 33

Many critiqued Meads research for participating in observer bias + making sweeping generalisations based on a short period of study.
Freeman (1983) highly critical of Meads conclusions - conducted follow up study of Samoan people decades after. Argued Mead’s findings flawed as she was misled by some of her pps, so preconceptions of what she would find influenced her reading of events. But Freeman’s account also challenged as supporting own theoretical viewpoint (Shankman 1996).
Difficult to deem research credible.

Question 34

Evaluate the influence of culture on gender roles (2-)

Answer 34

Furthermore imposed etic may have taken place.
Cross cultural research typically undertaken by western researchers who study indigenous pop. - danger researchers armed with theories + methods developed in West impose own cultural understanding upon ppl they study - assume findings true universally.
Berry et al (2000) advocates for inclusion of at least one member of local pop. within research team to avoid imposed etic.
Adopt emic response by creating measurements specific to culture being studied.

Question 35

Evaluate the influence of culture on gender roles (3-)

Answer 35

Cross cultural research does not solve nature nurture debate.
Practically impossible to separate 2 influences: as soon as child born their socialisation into particular society starts + general expectations that come with it. Hard to determine where nature (biology) stops + nurture (social influence) begins.
Likely there’s complex interaction between both + each influences other in development of gender roles.

Question 36

Outline atypical gender development bio explanation

Answer 36

Gender identity disorder / gender dysphoria
Person feels mismatch between bio sex (XX / XY) + gender identity (how we see ourselves)
E.g. some ppl have male genitals + facial hair but dont identify as male vice versa. May use different terms such as non-binary

Bio explanation - brain sex theory
Some parts of brain different in male + female (dismorphic) e.g. bed nucleus of stria terminals 40% larger in males + has more neurons than in females when fully developed at age 5 (Zhou et al 1995)

Evidence - ppl who suffer gender dysphoria have brain structure that matches ‘preferred’ brain gender e.g. bio male living as female has brain structure of female
So gender dysphoria due to structure changes in brain

Genetic causes
Perhaps it is inherited - twin studies. If caused by genes, MZ twins would have higher concordance rates than DZ + be higher than general population. Research showed 39% for MZ + 0% for DZ

Question 37

Evaluate atypical gender development bio explanation (1-)

Answer 37

Twin study evidence - bio explanation acc weak
Concordance rate of only 39% with small sample of only 23 MZ twins
Gender dysphoria is rare - explains why samples small but cannot generalise
Limited explanation

Question 38

Evaluate atypical gender development bio explanation (2-)

Answer 38

Further limitations
Twins share environment + DNA, MZ twins particularly likely to have similar environmental experiences (Plomin 1990)
Impossible to measure impact of only bio influences - might not be appropriate
More interactionist approach better to explain - considers both bio + environment

Question 39

Outline atypical gender development social-psychological explanation

Answer 39

Psychoanalytic / Freud

Symbiotic fusion - one individual fuses their identity with another, result is extremely detrimental to functioning of all parties involved.
Individual comes to see themselves as person they fused with e.g. child becomes the mother + adopts female gender identity.

Cognitive - extension of gender schema theory
Pathway theory - kids on pathway 1 develop gender appropriate attitudes + preferences
Kids on pathway 2 more likely to lead to androgyny, or occasionally gender dysphoria
e.g. boy playing with dolls may believe dolls are for boys as well as girls.

Question 40

Evaluate atypical gender development social-psychological explanation (1+)

Answer 40

Research support
Interviews with gender dysphoric males - seen to display overly close mother-son relationships
Would lead to greater female identification + confused gender identity long term

Question 40

Evaluate atypical gender development social-psychological explanation (2-)

Answer 40

Gender bias
Feminist psychologists reject Freuds theory - only looks into male to female dysphoria and not vice versa
Androcentric + not fully comprehensive

Question 41

Evaluate atypical gender development social-psychological explanation (3-)

Answer 41

Cog explanations are descriptive rather than explanatory
Little reasoning of why child becomes interested in activities that are not consistent with own gender + how such activities bring development of non sex-typed schema
What have we acc learnt?