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issues and debates Flashcards

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1
Q

what does Gender bias mean

A

the differential treatment and/or representation of male and females , based on sterotypes and not on real life differences

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2
Q

what is alpha bias

A

refers to theories which exaggerate the differences between males and females

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3
Q

what is Beta bias

A

refers to theories which minimise or ignore the differences males and females. These theories often assume that the finding from males can apply equally to females

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4
Q

what does androcentrism mean

A

theories which are centred on, or focus on males

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5
Q

what does Gynocentricism

A

theories which are centred on, or focused on females

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6
Q

name an example of Alpha bias

A

Freud- argued that there are genuine psychological differences between men and women. His theory suggest that women are inferior as young girls suffer from ‘penis envy’, and he viewed feminity as failed form of masculinity

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7
Q

what is the biological example for the beta bias

A

biological research into flight or flight response has often been carried out with male animals. it was assumed that this would be a problem as the flight or flight response would be the same for both sexes

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8
Q

what is taylor et al example of beta bias

A

found that females adopt a ‘tend and befriend’ response in stressful/dangerous situations: women are more likely to protect their offspring (tending) and form alliances with other women (befriending) rather than fight an adversary or flee

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9
Q

name an example of androcentrism

A

asch study

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10
Q

what is the AO3 for gender bias

A
  • misleading assumptions
  • methodological issues are to blame for bias
  • sexism within the research process
  • feminist psychology
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11
Q

why is misleading assumptions a limitation of gender bias

A

gender bias research may cause misleading assumptions about female behaviour and fails to challenge sterotypes - damaging consequences affecting woman’s lives- Bem in a male centred world female differences are viewed as bad lowering self esteem

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12
Q

why is methodological issue to blame for gender bias

A

Maccoby and Jacklin found that there was no significant difference between men and women but methodological differences are to blame for bias.

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13
Q

why is sexism within the research process a limitation of gender bias

A

a lack of women appointed at senior research means that female concerns may not be reflected in the research questions asked. Kohlberg said that there is minimal difference between males and females in terms of moral thinking. also institutional sexism

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14
Q

why is feminist psychology a strength of gender bias

A

one way to counter androcentrism is to take a feminist perspective feminists psychology argue that there are real biological differences between sexes. modern psychology doesn’t have gender bias but helps women rather than oppress them

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15
Q

what does alpha bias mean in terms of cultural bias

A

occurs when a theory assumes that culturally groups are profoundly different

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16
Q

what does cultural bias mean

A

cultural bias is the tendency to judge people in terms of ones own cultural assumptions

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17
Q

what does beta bias mean in terms of cultural bias

A

occurs when real cultural differences are ignored or minimised and all people are assumed to be the same, resulting in universal research and design & conclusions

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18
Q

what does ethnocentrism mean

A

means seeing the world from ones won cultural perspective and believed that this ones perspective is both normal and correct

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19
Q

what does cultural relativism mean

A

insists that behaviour can be properly understood only if the cultural contexts is taken into consideration

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20
Q

what is an example of ethnocentrism

A

ainsworth strange situation- was developed to see attachment types and may researchers assume that the strange situation has the same meaning for the infants in other cultures, as it does for American children

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21
Q

what is an example of cultural relativism

A

the meaning of intelligence is different in every culture

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22
Q

what does determinism mean

A

the view that free will is an illusion and that our behaviour is governed by internal or external forces over which we have no control, and consequently our behaviour are viewed as predictably

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23
Q

what is soft determinism

A

is the view that our choices are constrained by our biology and environment, but that we have free will to choose within those options.
eg social learning theory and cognitive approach

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24
Q

what is hard determinism

A

this is the view that forces outside of our control ( eg biology or past experience) shape our behaviour.
such as behaviourist and biological

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25
Q

what is free will

A

free will is the idea that can play an active role and have choice in how we behave. The assumption is that individuals are free to choose their behaviour and are self determined

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26
Q

what is biological determinism

A

refers to the idea that all human behaviour is innate and determined by genes

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27
Q

how does biological determinism link to year 1 psychopathology

A

the biological approach suggest that OCD is partly genetic. Nestadt et al (2000) found that people with first degree relatives who suffer from OCD are 5x more likely to suffer from OCD at some time in their life

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28
Q

what is environmental determinism

A

this is the view behaviour is caused by forces outside the individual. Therefore behaviour is caused by previous experience learned through classical conditioning and maintaining through operant conditioning

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29
Q

how does environmental determinism link to year 1 psychopathology

A

the behaviour approach suggest that phobias are acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning and therefore, to some extent, environmentally determined

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30
Q

what is psychic determinism

A

claims that human behaviour is the result of childhood experiences and innate drives ( ID,Ego and superego), as Freuds model of psychological development

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31
Q

how does psychic determinism link to year 2- gender/ forensic

A

the psychodynamic approach suggest that gender behaviours are acquired during the phallic stage of development, through the resolution of the Oedipus complex or electra complex, where children identify as same sex parent

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32
Q

how does free will link to year 2- approaches in psychology

A

humanistic psychologists argue against determinism view, claiming that humans have self determinism and free will and that behaviour is not the result of any single course

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33
Q

what is the definition of nature

A

the view that behaviour is the product of biological or genetic factors

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34
Q

what is the definition of nurture

A

the view that behaviour is the product of environmental influences

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35
Q

what is the interactionists approach

A

the view that both nature and nurture work togther to shape human behaviour

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36
Q

what is an example of nature in psychology

A

Bowlby propose that children came into the world biologically programmed to form attachments because this will help them survive. This suggest that attachment behaviours are naturally selected and are passed on as a result of genetic inheritance

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37
Q

according to bowlby what is the cause and what is the behaviour

A 
behaviour= attachment 
cause= innate/ biological factors
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38
Q

what is an example of nurture in psychology

A

behavioural psychologists explain attachment’s in terms of classical conditioning where food (UCS) is associated with the mother (NS), and through many repeated pairings, the mother becomes as CS who elicits a CR in the child. Therefore the child forms an attachment based on the pleasure experience as a result of being fed

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39
Q

According to attachment what is the cause and what is the behaviour

A 
behaviour= attachment 
cause= classical conditioning (learning from environment )
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40
Q

what are examples of the interactionists approach

A

the genetic disorder PKU is caused by the inheritance of two recessive genes. people with PKU are unable to break down the amino acid which builds up in the blood and brain causing mental retardation. But if the child is put on a protein diet from 12 years they don’t have this. PKU (nature ) not expressed due to altered environment (nurture - protein diet)

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41
Q

what is Gestalt Psychology

A

Gestalt Psychology adopts a holistic approach to perception: when we perceive something in the real world, we do so as a whole rather than a collection of bits and pieces.

42
Q

what is the lowest level of reductionism

A

Biological Explanations​

Neurochemical, Genetic, Brain Structures etc.

43
Q

what is the middle level of reductionism

A

Psychological Explanations​

(Cognitive, Behavioural/Environmental

44
Q

what is the highest level of reductionism

A

Social & Cultural Explanations​

The influence of social groups on behaviour

45
Q

what is an example of social and cultural explanations in an area of psychology in which you have studied

A

Year 1: Memory – Memory could be explained at this level as research suggests that cultural expectations affect what we remember and how we recall information

46
Q

what is an example of psychological explanations in an area of psychology in which you have studied

A

However, memory can also be considered at a psychological level, for example, cognitive psychologists examine particular aspects of memory. For example, Miller (1956) examined the capacity of STM and Peterson & Peterson (1959) examined the duration of STM.

47
Q

what is an example of biological explanations in an area of psychology in which you have studied

A

Finally, memory can also be considered in terms of biological components. For example, Maguire et al. (2000) found an association between the size of the hippocampus and memory for spatial navigation.

48
Q

what is BIOLOGICAL REDUCTIONISM

A

Refers to the way that biological psychologists to reduce behaviour to a physical level and explain it in terms of neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones, brain structure, etc.​ eg biological approach

49
Q

what is ENVIRONMENTAL REDUCTIONISM

A

..is also known as a stimulus-response reductionism. Behaviourists assume that all behaviour can be reduced to the simple building blocks of S-R (Stimulus-response) associations and that complex behaviours are a series of S-R chains. eg behaviourist approach

50
Q

what is reductionism

A

Reductionism: Reductionism is the belief that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into simpler component parts. eg behaviourist approach

51
Q

what is an example of biological reductionism in an area of psychology that you have studied

A

Year 1 Psychopathology: The biological approach claims that OCD is caused by higher levels of dopamine and lower levels of serotonin.

52
Q

what is an example of environmental reductionism in an area of psychology that you have studied

A

Year 1 Psychopathology: The behaviourist approach claims that phobias are initiated through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning.

53
Q

what is holism

A

the idea that human behaviour should be viewed as a whole integrated experiences, and not as separate parts.

54
Q

what is humanistic psychology

A

Humanistic psychology argues that humans react to stimuli as an organise whole, rather than a set of S-R links. As an approach, it uses qualitative methods to investigate all aspects of the individual, as well as the interactions between people.

55
Q

Give an example of biological reductionism from an area of psychology that you have studied. [3 marks]

A

One example of biological reductionism comes from the Year 1 Psychopathology topic.​

The biological approach argues that obsessive compulsive disorder is caused by increased levels of dopamine and lower levels of serotonin and therefore reduces the cause of OCD down to an imbalance of neurotransmitters.

56
Q

Explain what psychologists mean by ‘levels of explanation’ in relation to reductionism. [3 marks].

A

The reductionism approach argues is that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into simpler component parts. ​

There are three different levels of explanation within reductionism: 1) higher levels take into account social and cultural factors; 2) middle levels which reduce behaviour to more simple psychological explanations; 3) lower levels which reduces behaviour to individual biological factors (e.g. neurochemistry, genes, brain structure etc.)

57
Q

what does idiographic research mean

A

psychologists take an idiographic approach focus on the individual and emphasises the unique personal experience of human nature

58
Q

what does nomothetic research mean

A

psychologists who take an nomothetic approach are concerned with establishing general laws, based on the study of large groups of people

59
Q

name some methods of idiographic research

A

case studies
unstructured interviews
thematic analysis

60
Q

why are case studies a powerful research method

A

a single case study can highlight flaws within a theory and significantly undermine other research. Shallice and Warring - patient KF study is a idiographic research (case study)

61
Q

Do cognitive psychologists always take an idiographic research

A

No! sometimes they can be both idiographic and nomothetic it is best to combine them to get depth and detail

62
Q

name some methods of nomothetic research

A 
experiments 
correlational research 
psychometric testing (personality) 
surveys 
questions
63
Q

how does the behavioural approach use a nomothetic approach

A

pavlov classical conditioning

pavlov experimented on Dogs then applied it to humans

64
Q

how does the biological approach use a nomothetic approach use a nomothetic approach

A

biological psychologists take a nomothetic approach when explaining psychological disorders, eg OCD. Pint points factors eg neurotransmitters and use biological therapies to treat all patients

65
Q

how does the cognitive approach use the nomothetic approach use an nomothetic approach

A

cognitive psychologists, such as Atkisnon and Shiffron, developed general laws such as MSM of memory. which they believed could be generalised to everyone

66
Q

what does ethical implications mean

A

considers the impact or consequence that psychological research has on rights of other people in a wider context, not just the participants taking part in the research

67
Q

state an example of ethical implication on research studies

A

Milgram study- the participants were deceived so unable to give informed consent - also distressing but they were debriefed. Therefore it can be argued that the importance of the findings did not justify the way the study was conducted

68
Q

state an example of ethical implications on theories

A

suggested that children form one attachment, usually with mothers. Also suggested that these relationships would have impacted future relationships. Bowlbys theory encouraged the view that the woman’s place was at home also making them feel bad when they left their children

69
Q

what does social senstvity mean

A

Seiber and Stanley uses this term to describe studies where there a potential social consequences for participants represented by research

70
Q

what resarch is socially sensitive

A
  • mailgrams research is socially sensitive as the results could be used to ensure that people obey orders, inclduding those they dint wish to follow
71
Q

what theories are socially sentive

A
  • it could be argued that Bowlbys theory attachment is socially sensitive as it could be used to coerce mothers to stay at home and look after their children
72
Q

what 4 things need to be considered before conducting research

A
  1. the research question
  2. the methodology used
  3. the institutional context
  4. interpretation and application of findings
73
Q

state a real life example of social sensitivity

A

Cyril Burt used studies of identical twins to support the view that intelligence is largely genetic. His views greatly influenced the Hadow report which led to creation of 11+ exam. This meant that generations of children were affected by the 11+ later transpired his data was falsified

74
Q

an example of androcentric alpha bias

A

Freud’s research into the human psyche displayed androcentric alpha bias. He suggested that male traits and behaviours were normal, while women were abnormal, displaying androcentrism. Furthermore, he believed there were large and permanent psychological differences between men and women, without good evidence to support this claim. Conclusive research evidence shows that differences between genders are far less pronounced than Freud suggests, so his theories also suffer from alpha bias

75
Q

what is universality

A

A theory or behaviour that applies to everyone

76
Q

why is it difficult to come up with universal theories of behaviour

A

cultural differences as to how people behave

77
Q

what is ethnocentric bias

A

when psychology research lacks validity or reliability due to ethnocentrism. This maybe because the researcher studied other cultures but doesn’t understand other cultures perspective

78
Q

what are the consequences of ethnocentrism

A
  • may lack external validity + reliability, may not generalise to other cultures
  • can lead to misdiagnoses as they are seen to be behaving abnormally from different cultures
  • can lead to harmful sterotypes + cultures being denied
79
Q

why cant Ainsworth strange situation generalise to other cultures

A

cultural variations in attachment styles differ eg some Asian cultures are collectivist so babies more likely to have insecure resistant but USA is individualistic.
her research displays ethnocentric bias as it was only American mothers and babies but assumed it can be generalised to babies across cultures

80
Q

what are the evaluation of cultural relativism

A
  • may exaggerate differences between cultures
  • can ignore differences within a culture
  • one strength is that it prevents ethnocentric bias
81
Q

what is cross cultural research

A

this is research being carried out in different cultures to see if theories generalised, if there are cultural variations.
researchers from a number of different cultures to minimise ethnocentric bias

82
Q

what does the biological approach focus on in terms of nature vs nurture debate

A

Though the biological approach acknowledges the influence of external factors on behaviour, it mostly explains behaviour through internal physical traits that tend to be inherited from our parents. Thus the biological approach mostly supports the nature side of the debate.

83
Q

what does the behaviourist approach focus on in terms of nature vs nurture

A

The behaviourist approach believes that most behaviour is learned through conditioning, which lends itself to the nurture argument. However, this approach does still acknowledge some innate instincts that are explained as unconditioned responses, so does not entirely focus on nurture.

84
Q

what does the social learning theory focus on in terms of nature vs nurture

A

As an approach, social learning theory acknowledges that we have some innate behaviours, but that most of our behaviours are learned from the people in our environment. Therefore, social learning theory mostly supports the nurture side of the debate.

85
Q

With reference to empirical evidence, explain one example which shows how difficult it can be to test the relative contributions of nature and nurture. [4 marks]

A

It can be very difficult to test the relative contributions of nature and nurture because the interactions between them are often very complex. For example, Ripke et al. found that there are 100 risk alleles associated with schizophrenia. Since different people will carry a different combination of these risk alleles, it’s very difficult to test a cause and effect relationship between each particular allele, or each combination of alleles, and schizophrenia. It is therefore difficult to determine the overall contribution of heredity to schizophrenia.

86
Q

what is a diathesis - stress model

A

says that the effect of genes on behaviour depends on environmental factors - so its a model of a gene - environment interaction

87
Q

define hereditary

A

the process in which traits are passed down from one generation to the next

88
Q

what do free will and determinsm have in common

A

They are both Falsifiable. Free will is unfalsifiable as it doesn’t allow for predictions about behaviour. Determinism is unfalsifiable as we can only falsify claims about specific claims for behaviour and only falsify general claims that behaviour has a cause.

89
Q

what does falsifiability

A

Falsifiability in scientific research means that any hypothesis must have the ability to be disproved

90
Q

A scientific approach to psychology emphasises causal explanations. Explain how this relates to Free Will and Determinism. [6 Marks]— how would you answer this question

A

For psychology to be considered scientific, it needs to follow the experimental method. A key part of the experimental method is testing cause and effect relationships. STATE EXAMPLE + EXPLAIN
In this way, cause and effect relationships are vital to the status of psychology as a science, because without cause and effect relationships, it is impossible to test hypotheses, meaning that they are unfalsifiable.
describe how free will and determinism are unfalsible

91
Q

positive and negative of free willl

A

humanistic approach argues that free will matches our subjective experience which shows that its real - determinism argue that this is an illusion
assuming free will can unfairly blame people for things that isnt their fault may be caused by biological + environmental factors

92
Q

AO3 for determinism and free will

A

• If we assume free will, we cannot study cause and effect or make predictions , both of which are necessary for a scientific approach to psychology.
• Psychologists successfully do both of these things, which suggests that free will is false .
• Determinism does not match our subjective experience of freely making our own decisions.
• Determinism may lead to an external locus of control and Benassi et al found that people with an external locus of control are more likely to suffer from depression .
• Assuming free will can unfairly blame people for behaviour that wasn’t their fault.
If we assume determinism , then it does not make sense to send people to prison on the grounds that they deserve punishment.
• Determinism is still compatible with the legal system, if punishments are used as a deterrent .

93
Q

what is the order of approaches in the psychological levels of explanations. from most holistic downwards to more reductionist

A 
humanistic 
psychodynamic 
SLT 
cognitive 
behaviourist 
biological
94
Q

what do humanists argue

A
  • we must focus on all aspects of behaviour

- we shouldn’t break down behaviour into simpler parts

95
Q

how are reductionist explanations scientific

A

breaks it down to cause and effect which is falsifiable. more scientific than holistic so its a strength

96
Q

what is the principle of parismony

A

states that if there are several different, which completely or totally explain something, we choose the most simplest one

97
Q

2 weaknesses of interationism

A

The first weakness is that interactionism is less scientific than very reductionist explanations. The second weakness of interactionism is that it violates the principle of parsimony because it introduces higher levels of explanation and it also requires us to use more than one level of explanation.

98
Q

how does nomothetic research collect data

A

correlational studies as it tries to establish general conclusions whether two variables are associated. Experiments are also nomothetic. use Quantitative data

99
Q

how does ideographic research collect data

A

case studies and open questions (unstructured interviews) which produce qualitative data

100
Q

which approaches are primary nomothetic

A
  • behaviourist
  • social learning
  • biological
  • cognitive
101
Q

which approach argues that psychology should be idiographic

A

humanistic- everyone is so complex and different from one another so psychology shouldn’t generalise laws
psychodynamic argues for idiographic methods too

102
Q

Ao3 for idiographic and nomothetic

A

+ nomo is more scientific as they aim to establish general laws, which allow us to make predictions
- idio often criticised as being unscientific because they dont try and establish general laws
+ ideographic allows for better predictions
+ idio more feasible as it requires less participants

psychology A level (4 decks)

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