Issues and Debates

Question 1

Define free will

Answer 1

The idea that humans are free to choose their own behaviour and that influences (biological/environmental/ can be rejected at will

Question 2

Define determinism

Answer 2

The view that an individuals behaviour is largely determined by external/internal forces rather than an individuals will to do something.

Question 3

Define hard determinism

Answer 3

The idea that internal/external forces ONLY influence a person’s behaviour, and free will plays no part at all.

Question 4

Define soft determinism

Answer 4

The idea that behaviour has causes but people can also still have conscious mental control over the way they behave.

Question 5

Define biological determinism

Answer 5

The idea that behaviour is caused by biological e.g. genetic/hormonal/evolutionary, influences that we cannot control.

Question 6

Define environmental determinism

Answer 6

The idea that behaviour is caused by environmental factors, such as conditioning and reinforcement, that we cannot control.

Question 7

Define psychic determinism

Answer 7

The idea that behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts/instincts that we cannot control

Question 8

What do causal explanations of behaviour rely on?

Answer 8

Scientific evidence: carrying out lab experiments and controlling experiments to help support ideas and make general laws about human behaviour.

Question 9

Evaluate the idea of determinism.

Answer 9

Strengths

1. Consistent with science: Use of lab experiments and replicable procedures
2. Application: Influential in development of treatments for mental illnesses e.g. development of psychotherapeutic drugs to deal with schizophrenia

Weaknesses

1. Hard determinism not consistent with legal system, in which criminals are held accountable for own actions.
2. Unfalsifiable: States that behaviour will always have a cause, even if its not yet been found. This is impossible to prove wrong, and hence, doesn’t adopt scientific stance

Question 10

Evaluate the idea of free will

Answer 10

Strengths

1. Application: Robert et al found people with a high external locus of control were more likely to have depression. This suggests that believing we have free will may a positive impact on our mind/health.
2. ** Face validity

Against:
1. Evidence: Through exercise where ppt had to press button with left/right hand on it,Researchers found that even our most basic experiences of free will are determined by brain before we are even aware of them.

Question 11

What approach is most commonly adopted in the free will/determinism argument?

(Name a theory that adopts this approach)

Answer 11

The interactionist approach - Behaviour can be influenced by both our own conscious choices, and by internal/external forces.
- The Social Learning theory adopts this approach

Question 12

Define universality?

Answer 12

Universality = the idea that conclusions drawn can be applied to anyone, anywhere, regardless of time and culture.

Question 13

How is universality affected by bias?

Answer 13

Psychologists possess beliefs and values influenced by the social and historical context within which they live.

Question 14

Define:

1. Gender Bias?
2. Alpha bias?
3. Beta bias?

Answer 14

Gender bias: The idea that psychological research may not accurately represent the experience and behaviour of men and women

Alpha bias: When research suggests there are real and enduring differences between the 2 sexes. (Tends to undervalue women)

Beta bias: When theories ignore or minimise differences between the sexes.

Question 15

Give an example of alpha bias

Answer 15

Sociobiological theory of relationship formation

1. It is in a male’s interest to impregnate as many women as possible in order to increase his chances of his genes being passed on to offspring.
2. It is in the female’s interest to ensure the survival of the relatively few offspring she produce, in order to preserve her genes.

Therefore, sexual promiscuity in males is said to be ‘genetically determined’ but would ‘go against nature’ for females.

Question 16

Give an example of beta bias

Answer 16

Early research of fight or flight were conducted exclusively on male animals but response was assumed to be universal
- Taylor et al suggests that female biology has evolved to inhibit fight/flight response, shifting attention towards caring for offspring (tending) and forming defensive networks with offer females (befriending). Females exhibit a tend and befriend response governed by hormone oxytocin

Question 17

Outline one consequence of beta bias

Answer 17

Androcentrism

• If male behaviour is seen as ‘typical behaviour’, any other behaviour would be seen as deviating from the standard and would be judged abnormal.
• leads to female behaviour being misunderstood and even pathologised (takes as a sign of illness) e.g. PMS

Question 18

Evaluate the idea of research into gender bias

Answer 18

Strengths

1. Understanding of gender bias leads to reflexivity: Researchers can recognise effects of their subjective experiences on research (reflexivity). This leads to greater awareness of role of personal bias in shaping future research
2. Feminist psychologists have proposed ways of avoiding gender bias: Proposed that more women should be studied in research, and within real-life settings.

Limitations

1. Sexism : Research may lead to women not being taken seriously due to stereotypes (e.g. overemotional). This prevents them from sharing their ideas, so female concerns may not be reflected in research
2. Job opportunities: Essentialist argument (there will always be fixed differences between male and females) can lead to double standards. Job opportunities may be denied for women if research is found that women can’t function in certain ‘male’ roles.

Question 19

Define cultural bias.

Answer 19

The tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the ‘lens’ of one’s own culture.

Question 20

What is the main issue with cultural bias?

Answer 20

It means that any behaviour that doesn’t meet the standards of one’s own culture will be seen as ‘abnormal’

Question 21

Give examples of how 1 culture’s findings can’t always be generalised to all cultures

Answer 21

Studies of conformity (Asch) and Obedience (Milgram) showed very different results when replicated around world.

Question 22

Define ethnocentrism

Answer 22

The belief in the superiority of one’s own cultural group
- This means that any behaviour that doesn’t meet the standards of one’s own culture will be seen as ‘abnormal’ and ‘underdeveloped’

Question 23

Give an example of ethnocentric research

Answer 23

MARY AINSWORTH

• Ainsworth described the nature of a good attachment through the norms and values of American culture. She said that secure attachment can be defined by an infant showing moderate distress upon being separated from their caregiver.
• This led to different behaviours being seen as abnormal. e.g. German mothers were seen as being cold and hostile, rather than being seen as trying to encourage independence in their children.

This had led to Strange Situation being an inappropriate measure of attachment for non-US children

Question 24

Define cultural relativism

Answer 24

The idea that norms and values, as well as ethics and moral standards, can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts.

Question 25

Define an etic and emic approach

Answer 25

Etic: looks at behaviour from outside given culture, and tries to apply these findings universally. (e.g. Ainsworth)

Emic: Looks at behaviour within specific cultures, and applies findings to only that culture.

Question 26

Evaluate the idea of research into cultural bias

Answer 26

Strengths

1. Some behaviours are universal: Ekman suggests that some facial expressions, e.g. disgust, is universal so we should assume ALL research is culturally relative.
2. Cross-cultural research: Western beliefs can be challenged by conducting similar research in different cultures. This gives researchers a greater understanding of cultural relativism, so they can include role of culture in their conclusions (This gives research greater validity).
3. Researcher bias in cross-cultural research can be prevented by having an indigenous interpreter observing behaviour as well.

Limitations

1. Idea of collectivism and individualism is no longer relevant: Research found that out of 14 out of 15 studies, there was found to be no evidence of a distinction between US and Japan (in terms of independence).
2. Cross-cultural research can be influenced by researcher bias due to preconceived stereotypes.

Question 27

What do ‘NATURE’ researchers argue in the nature-nurture debate?

Answer 27

Researchers, such as Descartes, argue that behaviour is innate and the result of heredity.

Question 28

What is the general figure for heritability of IQ and what does this suggest?

Answer 28

0. 5

- this suggests that environment also plays a role in IQ

Question 29

What do ‘NURTURE’ researchers argue in the nature-nurture debate?

Answer 29

That behaviour is a result of the ‘environment’ and that we are born ‘a blank slate’.

Question 30

Define ‘levels of the environment’

Answer 30

As idea of ‘environment’ is so broad, there are levels that describe the environment and these range from pre-natal environment in womb to life outside womb in external world

Question 31

Describe the interactionist approach in the nature-nurture debate.

Answer 31

The idea that nature and nurture are linked to such an extent that it doesn’t make sense to separate the 2, but to observe how they interact and influence each other.

Question 32

Describe the diathesis-stress model

Answer 32

It is a type of interactionist approach that states that genes create a vulnerability for things such as schizophrenia, and stressors in the environment trigger behaviours.

Question 33

What are ‘epigenetics’

Answer 33

They are changes to our genetic activity without changing our genetic code and it is caused by interaction with the environment (e.g smoking, diet, etc)
- they can go on to influence the genetic activity of our children and grandchildren

Question 34

Give an example of research into epigenetics.

Answer 34

Rats were given a shock whenever they were exposed to a certain smell. Due to classical conditioning, they developed a fear for the smell, but so did their children, and grandchildren.

Question 35

Evaluate the nature-nurture debate

Answer 35

Strengths

1. Application for nurture approach: Behaviour therapy can be used to reinforce desirable behaviours, and punish/discourage negative behaviours.
2. Constructivism: Interactionist approach is further developed by idea that children select their own nurture, by choosing environments that are more suited to their nature (e.g. naturally shy child, may choose to make friends with other shy pupils).

Limitations

1. Shared/unshared environments: It is nearly impossible to control environmental effects, as even with MZ, they wouldn’t share exactly the same upbringing. This is why they dont always show 100% concordance rates
2. Hard determinism: Strong commitment to either nature or nurture suggests hard determinism (further evaluation)

Question 36

Describe the idiographic approach

Answer 36

An approach that focuses on the uniqueness of the individual. It focuses on in-depth details and subjective experiences
- Uses qualitative methods such as case studies

Question 37

Give examples of theories that follow the idiographic approach

Answer 37

1. Humanistic Theory of the ‘self’: Focus on the unique individual and their own subjective experiences
2. The psychodynamic theory: Psychoanalysis may produce different findings for different people, and people may find themselves at different psychosexual stages of development. BUT, Freud still set out general principles (such as idea of id, ego, and superego)

Question 38

Describe the nomothetic approach

Answer 38

An approach that aims to establish general laws and principles that apply to many people. It focuses on the similarities between people and gaining objective knowledge.
- uses scientific and reliable methods such as lab experiments and questionnaires

Question 39

Give examples of theories that follow the nomothetic approach

Answer 39

1. Behaviourist: general idea of classical conditioning.
2. Biological: Genes control specific phenotypes universally
   - (These both use scientific techniques such as lab experiments)
3. Cognitive: We all develop schemas for behaviours (uses scientific techniques such as PET scans)

Question 40

Evaluate the idiographic approach

Answer 40

Strengths
1. Produces rich data: As it largely involves qualititative data, the researcher could gain larger insight into certain behaviours, and this could make data higher in validity.

Limitations

1. Lack of scientific techniques: As some processes cannot be observed, it is hard to make generalisations on behaviour.
2. Researcher Bias: Conclusions tend to rely on the subjective interpretation of the researcher, and are therefore, open to bias

Question 41

Evaluate the nomothetic approach

Answer 41

Strengths

1. Scientific methods: Behaviour can be observed through use of methods such as lab experiments and standardised procedures, and therefore, it’s easier to make generalisations
2. Less open to researcher bias: Focus on objective knowledge lessens the effect of researchers subjective interpretation affecting conclusions

Limitation
1. Data may not be as rich: As information gained as largely quantitative, the researcher gains less insight, so behaviour may lack in validity .

Question 42

Can the idiographic and nomothetic approaches complement each other?

(give an example of research that follows an interactionist approach)

Answer 42

Yes they can
- Research on gender development attempts to establish general patterns of behaviour, alongside studying case studies (such as that of David Reimer)

Question 43

Define holism

Answer 43

An argument that states we can only study a whole system rather its constituent parts

Question 44

Define reductionism

Answer 44

The argument that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into smaller constituent parts

Question 45

Give examples of levels of explanation for reductionism

Answer 45

OCD

1- Socio-cultural level - repetitive behaviour most people would regard as odd e.g repetitive hand-washing

2. Psychological level - the individuals experience of having obsessive thoughts.
3. Physical level - the sequence of movements involved in washing one’s hands
4. Neurochemical - underproduction of serotonin

(each level is more reductionist than the other)

Question 46

What is the hierarchy of science?

Answer 46

A hierarchy that places the most specific sciences at the bottom (e.g. Physics) and the more general sciences at the bottom (e.g. sociology)

Question 47

What may psychology be replaced by on the hierarchy of science?

Answer 47

Researchers who favour reductionist accounts of behaviour see psychology as being replaced by explanations derived from the sciences lower down in the hierarchy - this becomes the hierarchy of reductionism

Question 48

Define biological reductionism

Answer 48

The idea that behaviour can be explained at a neurochemical, neurophysical, evolutionary and genetic level.

Question 49

Define environment reductionism

Answer 49

The attempt to explain all behaviour in terms of stimulus-response links that have been learned through experience

Question 50

Evaluate the holism vs reductionism debate.

Answer 50

Strengths

1. Holism can explain situations within group contexts: There are some social behaviours that emerge within group context, that can’t be observed by studying individuals only e.g. de-individuation of prisoners in stanford experiments could only be observed through interactions between people.
2. Reductionalism has scientific credibility: use of lab experiments, replicable procedures, and operationalised variables
3. Interactionist approach led to better treatment: different approaches combine and this has led to a more multi-disciplinary and holistic approach to treatment for mental disorders (e.g. Combining drugs and family therapy) has been associated with lower relapse rates.

Limitations

1. Holism lacks scientific crediblity: Harder to observe clear cause and effect relationship if indivdual behaviour is looked at as a whole.
2. Reductionism oversimplifies complex phenomena: e.g. LTM is oversimplified in multi store model

Question 51

Define ethical implications

Answer 51

These are the impacts that psychological research may have on society.

Question 52

How are wider implications of research hard to predict?

Answer 52

Although researchers can control the methods they use and how they treat participants, they have less influence on how findings are presented in the media, how their work impacts public policy and the perception of some groups in society

Question 53

Define socially sensitive research

(give an example of socially sensitive topics)

Answer 53

Research that may be controversial as there are social implications, either directly for the pps in the research, or for the class of individuals represented by the pps.

E.G. studies into race and sexuality.

Question 54

Should researchers shy away from carrying out socially sensitive research?

Answer 54

No as they may have positive implications on society (e.g. David Reimer study has supported biological theory for gender)

Question 55

What are the 3 main concerns with socially sensitive research?

Answer 55

1. Implications: Some studies may give ‘scientific status’ to prejudice and discrimination.
2. Uses/Public Policy: Research may be used for wrong purpose e.g. may be used by government for political ends or to shape public policy.
3. Validity of the research: Some findings presented as objective in the past turned out to be fraudulent.

Question 56

Give an example of research that was found to be fraudalent (and therefore, discredited its validity)

Answer 56

Burt’s research

He developed 11+ to test children on ‘natural intelligence’ as he believed that intelligence was genetic (due to support from twin studies experiments he carried out, that showed a heritability coefficient of +77)

HOWEVER

discrepancies in data showed that he made much of the data up, and invented 2 research assistants. He was publically discredited but the 11+ still remains.

Question 57

Evaluate socially sensitive research

Answer 57

Strengths

1. Encourage tolerance: Studies of minority groups may promote greater understanding to help encourage acceptance and reduce prejudice
2. Led to researchers being more aware of bias: Researchers take into account way that questions of socially sensitive research is phrased so as to reduce bias e.g. Kitzinger and Coyle were scrutinised for research on ‘alternative relationships’ as this was heterosexual bias. (homosexual relationships were judged against heterosexual bias).

Limitation

1. Can equally lead to prejudice: Research may suggest that one group is more superior to others, which leads to unfair treatment.
2. Consequences, costs and benefits of socially sensitive research is hard to predict: We dont know whether it can lead to discrimination/intolerance between groups, a change in public policy, or whether it will lead to a more-open society. So it’s hard to tell whether the research is worth it.