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A2- Psychology > Gender > Flashcards

Gender Flashcards

1
Q

Define Sex.

A

A persons innate biological status as female or male, determined by different chromosomes

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2
Q

Define Gender.

A

The Psychosocial status of males and females (masculine/feminin/androgynous), including attitudes, behaviours and social roles associated with being male/female

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3
Q

Define ‘Gender Identity Disorder’.

A

A condition where biological sex and gender do not correspond

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4
Q

Define ‘Sex-Role Stereotypes’.

A

A set of expectations or appropriate behaviour for males and females in a society

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5
Q

Define androgynous.

A

Possessing a balance of masculine and feminin characteristics

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6
Q

What was the Bem Sex Role Inventory?

A

Systematic attempt to measure androgyny using a rating scale of 60 masculine/feminine/androgynous traits to produce scores across 2 dimensions: masculinity/femininity and androgynous/undifferentiated

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7
Q

Evaluate research into androgyny (the BSRI).

5 points

A

Strengths

  1. Validity: BSRI piloted with 1000 students and results correponded with pps own description of gender identity
  2. Reliability: Follow-up study involved a smaller sample of same students revealed similar scores when tested again.

Weakenesses
3. Demand Characteristics: same pps used in follow up
4. Cultural & Historical bias: Desirable m/f traits changed
as BSRI was developed over 40 years ago
5. BSRI Questionnaire: gender identity is too complex to be reduced to a single score

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8
Q

How does the sperm determine the sex of a child?

A

Egg cells carries an X chromosome whilst half the sperm cell carries an X chromosome and the other half, a Y chromosome.
- So the chromosome on the sperm cell determines the sex of the child

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9
Q

What is the ‘Sex determining Region Y’ gene (SRY)?

A

A gene found in the Y chromosome of the sperm cell, that causes tested to develop in an XY embryo

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10
Q

What are androgens?

A

Male sex hormones,that are stimulated by the SRY gene, causing the embryo to become a male (possessing male characteristics)

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11
Q

What are hormones?

A

Chemical substances that circulate in the bloodstream and regulate the activities of certain cells/organs
- They are produced in large quantities but disappear quicky, and their effects are very powerful.

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12
Q

What is testosterone?

A

A type of androgen produced mainly in the testes, which controls the development of male sex organs and male characteristics e.g. aggression

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13
Q

What is Oestrogen?

A

A female hormone that regulates menstruation and female sexual charactertistics
- can also cause irritability during menstrual cycle (PMS)

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14
Q

What is oxytocin?

A

A hormone, often known as ‘the love hormone’,found in much larger amounts in women than in men. It causes:

  • contraction of the uteru
  • stimulates lactation
  • reduces the stress hormone ‘cortisol’ and facilitates bonding
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15
Q

Evaluate the effect of sex and chromosomes on sex and gender

A

Strengths
1. Supporting evidence: David Reimer and Stephanie van Goozen et al (transwomen showed decreases in aggression and visuo-spatial skills whilst transmen showed opposite, suggesting that sex hormones do exert some influences on gender related behaviours

Weaknesses

  1. Contradictory evidence: Ray Tricker et al had male pps injected with either testosterone or a placebo, and found no significant differences in aggression levels
  2. Generalisability: Many studies used limited sample or are conducted on animals
  3. Effect of nurture: Certain cultures may influence certain behaviours for genders
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16
Q

Define ‘atypical sex chromosome patterns’

A

Any set of sex chromosome patterns that deviate from the standard XX/XY

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17
Q

Define Klinefelters Syndrome?

A

A syndrome that produces males with the pattern XXY, rather than XY
- this can lead to them having a tall, thin physique with small infertile testes and enlarged breasts

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18
Q

Give some physical and physicological characteristic of Klinefelters Syndrome

A

Physical: Reduced body hair, enlarged breasts, underdeveloped testes, tall thin physique

Physiological: Poorly developed language skills and reading ability, sufferers tend to be passive, shy and lack interest in sexual activity

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19
Q

Define Turner’s syndrome

A

When females only have one X chromosome (XO), instead of the 2 (XX), so that they only have 45 chromosomes, instead of the usual 46

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20
Q

Give some physical and physicological characteristic of Turners Syndrome

A

Physical: No ovaries, small stature, and webbed neck

Physiological: Higher than average reading ability but poor peer relationships, maths ability and visual memory

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21
Q

Evaluate the effect/research of atypical sex chromosome patterns

(4 points)

A

Strengths:

  1. Practical application: Continued research may lead to quicker and more accurate diagnosis of syndromes, and thus, more effective treatments (Australian study found that those who were diagnosed as having Klinefelters at an earlier age had significant benefits compared to those treated in adulthood)
  2. Nature vs Nurture: Makes room for reseach into whether characteristics are a result of nature vs nurture.

Weaknesses

  1. Environmental explanations: characteristics associated with syndromes like Turners (e.g. immaturity) may be because they were treated immaturely by people around them due to pre-prubescent appearance
  2. Generalisability: Sample used to assess characteristics may not apply to everyone with syndrome (only 1/3 know they have syndrome)
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22
Q

Name 2 cognitive explanations of gender development

A
  1. Kohlbergs theory

2. Gender Schema theory

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23
Q

Briefly state what Kohlbergs main argument is?

A
  • Children’s understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated with age. (directly related to intellectual development)
  • 3 stages of gender development: Gender, identity, Gender stability, Gender Constancy
  • Imitation of role models
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24
Q

Describe stage 1 of Kohlbergs theory

A 
GENDER IDENTITY (acquired around age 2)
- Children recognises that they are a boy/girl and can label others as such but isnt aware that sex is permanent
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25
Q

Describe stage 2 of Kohlbergs theory

A 
GENDER STABILITY (acquired around age 4)
- Child understand that their own gender is fixed and that they will be male/female when older but cant apply to other situations (doesnt understand concepts of a gender possessing opposite genders characteristics)
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26
Q

Describe stage 3 of Kohlbergs theory

A 
GENDER CONSTANCY (acquired around age 7)
- child realises that gender remains constant over time/situations; they begin to identify with people of own gender and start to behave in gender appropriate ways
27
Q

What concept does Kohlberg say confirms ‘Gender Constancy’?

A

Imitation of Role models

- Children will seek out gender-appropriate role models to identify with and imitate.

28
Q

Evaluate Kohlberg’s theory

6 points

A

Strengths

  1. Evidence Support: Children were presented with screens of male-females. Children in gender constancy stage spent longer time looking at person with same gender as them. (looking for role model)
  2. Universal: Similar results found as far as Kenya, Samoa and Nepal

Weaknesses

  1. Questionnaire: Kohlberg used questionaire on 2/3 year olds even though they may not have had vocabulary to articulate thoughts and feelings
  2. Social Learning Theory: Development may be due to cultural norms/external environment rather than age
  3. Constancy not supported: Bandura & Bussey found that children, as young as 4, presented gender appropriate behaviours way before constancy e.g. boys playing with action figures (gender schema theory explains this)
29
Q

What is a gender schema?

A

An organised set of beliefs and expectations about gender which guides gender-appropriate behaviour

30
Q

What are Martin and Halversons main argument in the gender schema theory?

A
  1. Only gender identity is needed (age 2-3) for the development of gender schemas
  2. Schemas, based on stereotypes, direct behaviour and childrens understanding of themselves = e.g. Im a boy so I must play with trucks. Children disregard info that doesn’t fit with gender schema until age 8 (info belonging to ingroup)
  3. Ingroups and outgroup: interest in outgroup schemas grow after age 8
31
Q

How is Martin and Halverson’s theory different to Kohlberg’s?

A

Martin and Halverson say that only gender identity is needed for children to be able to search the environment for info that encourages the development of gender schemas.
- HOWEVER, kohlberg believes this process can only begin once the child has passed through all 3 stages (when the child reaches gender constancy at age 7)

32
Q

Evaluate the Gender Schema theory?

4 points

A

Strengths

  1. Marton & Halverson study: they found that children were more likely to remember gender consistent behaviours than gender-inconsistent behaviours due to idea of stereotypes influencing gender schemas. Children also tended to change sex of person carrying out inconsistent behaviour, showing that memory is distorted to fit existing schemas
  2. Bandura & Bussey study: They found that children, as young as 4, presented gender appropriate behaviours way before constancy e.g. boys playing with action figures (gender schema theory explains this)

Weaknesses

  1. Social Learning Theory: Development may be due to cultural norms/external environment rather than age
  2. Key assumption not supported: It is assumed that it is easy to change behaviours by changing schemas but not always the case. e.g.married couples believe in equality, but this rarely has much effect on behaviour
33
Q

What are the stages of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory/ psychosexual stages of development?

A
  1. Oral
  2. Anal
  3. Phallic
  4. Latency
  5. Genital
34
Q

Define the term ‘pre-phallic’ stage?

A

the stage,between 0-3 years, where chlildren are bisexual - they do not display feminine or masculine traits

35
Q

At which stage does gender development start?

A

At the phallic stage

36
Q

Describe the Oedipus Complex?

A
  1. Boy feels sexual desire towards mother, and posseses hatred/jealousy towards father
  2. But also fears castration by father
  3. To avoid this, boy identifies with father and inherits some of this male characteristics
37
Q

Describe the Electra Complex?

A
  1. Girl feels sexual desire towards father
  2. Wants to identify with father but doesnt have a penis - penis envy
  3. Believes mother castrated child when they were young so feels hatred towards mother
  4. Identifies with mother in the end as they come to terms with fact that they will never have a penis, and instead substitue this for a desire to have children
38
Q

Define:

  • Identification (phallic stage)

- Internalisation (phallic stage)

A

Identification: Child adopting traits of their parent, due to a desire to be associated with them

Internalisation: Process of child identifying with parental standards and making these standards their own.

39
Q

Describe Freud’s evidence for the Oedipus Complex?

A

Little Hans

  • boy fears being bitten by a horse
  • Freud interprets this as boy fearing being bitten represents boy fearing castration. Hans transferred his fear of his father onto horses through the uconscious defence mechanism of displacement.
40
Q

Evaluate Freud’s psychoanalytic theory?

6 points

A

Strengths
1. Comprehensive explanation for development in boys

Weaknesses
2. Doesnt explain female development well: Much of research for girls was taken on by Carl Jung, one of sigmunds contemporaries. Freud openly stated that female developement was a ‘mystery’ to him

  1. Little Hans evidence is weak: Not enough evidence to connect Hans fear to castration anxiety.
  2. Doesnt account for non-nuclear families: Susan Golombok found that children from single-parent families went ont o develop normal gender identities.
  3. Contradicts other theories: Freud says gender identity is developed by end of phallic stage whilst Kohlberg says this happens at around age 2-3
  4. Not scientific: explanations based on concepts of an ‘unconscious’ nature so hard to measure,
41
Q

What are the key arguments of the social learning theory approach to gender development?

A
  1. Argues that behaviour is learned by observing others around us. Emphasises nurture over nature.
  2. Direct Reinforcement/differential reinforcement
  3. Indirect reinforcement
  4. Identification/Role Models
  5. Mediational Processes
42
Q

How can gender be learnt through direct/indirect reinforcement?

A

Direct reinforcement = Children are praised/encouraged for showing gender-appropriate behaviour, so this is more likely to be repeated.

Differential reinforcement= The way in which boys/girls are encouraged to show distinct gender-appropriate behaviours and learn gender identity.

43
Q

How can gender be learnt through indirect/vicarious reinforcement?

A

If a boy/girl sees someone else be praised for showing a gender-appropriate behavour, they are more likely to imitate it in the hope that they will also gain the reward.

44
Q

Define identification ?

A

Identification = The process by which a child will attach themselves to a role model (of the same-sex), as they would like to possess the same qualities.
- Children will copy gender-appropriate behaviours,as from the role model, and therefore, learn gender identity.

45
Q

Define modelling and give an example of it and its effect?

A

When a role model (e.g. mother) displays a behaviour to be imitated.
- A mother may model stereotypical feminine behaviour e.g. tidying the house, and the child imitate this behaviours, and therefore, strengthen gender identity.

46
Q

Name the 4 mediational processes and give an example to show how it can lead to a child strengthening/learning gender identity?

A
  1. Attention: Boy watches dad score a goal using a special technique (e.g. speed).
  2. Retention: Boy remembers how his dad scored the goal so he could imitate it later.
  3. Motor Reproduction: Boy is physically capable of doing it
  4. Motivation: Boy is motivated to perform behaviour, as he saw his brother being praised by his dad when he scored (vicarious reinforcement)
47
Q

Evaluate the social learning theory’s approach to gender development.

(4/5 points)

A

Strengths
1. Supports changing gender roles: More androgynous characteristics as a result of changing, less-rigid views on gender roles.

Weaknesses
2. Influence of age is not accounted for: Assumes behaviour can be imitated at any age, from birth, but this may not be the case. Whilst behaviour can be noticed by young children, Kohlberg argues that
imitation can only happen at gender constancy stage.

  1. Biological explanation: David Reimer study proves otherwise. HOWEVER, modern researchers accept biosocial theory, arguing that there are innate differences between male/females that are reinforced through social interactions & cultural expectations.
  2. Psychodynamic explanation: Freud argues that unconscious forces determine gender development but social learning theory says that children are conscious in mediational processes.
48
Q

What can cross-cultural research support the nurture-nature debate with regards to gender roles?

A

Nature = If behaviour is found to be consistent across different cultures, it may indicate an innate biological difference between males and females

Nurture = If behaviour is found to be different across cultures, It may indicate that behaviour is influencedby the environment

49
Q

Describe the procedure, results and conclusion of a cross-cultural research that supports the social learning theory for gender?

A

NEW GUINEA EXPERIMENT - MARGARET MEAD

Procedure: observed tribal groups in New guinea

Results:
1- Arapesh tribe (both M&F) were gentle and responsive (similar to western stereotype of femininity)
2. The Mundugumor tribe (both M&F) were aggressive and hostile. (similar to western stereotype of masculinity.
3. The Tchambuli women were dominant and organised village life whilst the men were passive and ‘decorative’ (reverse of western stereotypes)

Conclusion: gender roles may be culturally determined

50
Q

Describe the procedure, results and conclusion of a cross-cultural research that supports the biological theory for gender?

A

DAVID BUSS - MATE PREFERENCE EXPERIMENT

Procedure: Investigated mate preferences from m&f in 37 countries across all continents.

Results; In all cultures, women sought for mates that could provide money and resources whilst men looked for youth and physical attractiveness.

Conclusion: There are some cross-cultural similarities in gender roles.

51
Q

Evaluate cross-cultural research?

A

Strengths
1. Allowed for research supporting nature/nurture: Margaret Mead & David Buss

Weaknesses:
2. Observer bias: Mead’s preconceptions of samoans may have influenced her understanding of events.

  1. Short period of study: Mead made sweeping generalisations over a short period of study
  2. Imposed etic: This is when western ways of doing research may be meaningless in other cultures as they are based on western interests, resources and ideas (Buss eliminated possibility of this by having at least one indigenous person as part of his research teams
  3. Doesn’t SOLVE nature/nurture debate: Could be an interaction between the two.
52
Q

How does the media influence gender identity?

A
  • role models: The media provides roles models with whom children may identify and want to imitate
  • rigid stereotypes: it provides rigid stereotypes on how men/women act
  • self-efficacy: seeing other role models perform gender-appropriate behaviours increases the child’s belief that they will be successful in carrying out such behaviours in the future
53
Q

Give an case example of the media showing rigid gender stereotypes

A

Furnham and Farragher found that, in T.V ads, men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles within professional contexts whilst women were often seen occupying familial roles

54
Q

McGhee and Frueh: Children who have more exposure to popular forms of media tend to display (more?/less?) Gender stereotypes

A

More

55
Q

Evaluate the medias influence on gender roles/identity

A

Strengths
1. Furnham and Farragher: showed how media show rigid stereotypes

Weaknesses

  1. Correlation not causation: media may just reflect prevailing social norms, and not reinforce them. And no control group to show cause and effect relationship as most children are exposed to the media on a regular basis.
  2. Counter-stereotypes: not all media reinforces the status quo E.g Mulan taking on a stereotypical masculine role.
56
Q

Define Gender identity disorder

A

A disorder which describes individuals who identify much more with the opposite sex than the sex they were given at birth

57
Q

What type of conditions does the DSM-5 exclude in its categorisation of GID?

A

It excludes intersex conditions that have a recognised biological basis, such as Klinefelters
- However, this does not mean that GID is not subject to at least SOME biological influence

58
Q

Describe one theory that supports the biological approach to GID and give a case study to support the theory?

A

Brain sex theory = GID caused by specific brain structures that are incompatible with a person’s biological sex

E. G. BSTc (part of brain) is around 40% larger in males. Post-mortem studies of transgender females found that their BSTc was found to be a similar size to that of a female brain

59
Q

Describe the results of a study that suggests that GID has genetic basis. (supports biological approach)

A

Researchers found that the concordance tate for GID in MZ twins was 39% compared to 0% for DZ twins. This suggests that GID may be genetically inherited

60
Q

Name 2 social-psychological explanations for GID

A
  1. Psychoanalytic theory

2. Cognitive explanation

61
Q

Describe the psychoanalytic theory for GID

A

Biological males with GID experience separation anxiety at a young age. in order to overcome this, they fantasise a symbiotic fusion with their mother, and therefore take on the mother role and adopt the female gender identity.

62
Q

Describe the cognitive explanation for GID (GIVE YOUR OWN EXAMPLE)

A

A child’s personal interests may become more dominant than their gender identity, influencing the gender schema.
- in most people, this leads to androgyny, but in some, it can lead to GID.

E. G. a boy may enjoy playing with dolls and come to believe that playing with dolls can be for both boys and girls

63
Q

Evaluate the biological explanation for GID

A

Strengths
1. Evidence: BSTc and twin study evidence

Weaknesses
2. Contradictory evidence for BSTc: Hilleke Pol et al found that transgender hormone therapy affected the size of the BSTc, and therefore concluded that observed difference in BSTc may be due to hormone therapy as opposed to being a cause of it.

  1. Hard to distinguish nature vs nurture in twin studies: high concordance rates for MZ twins may be because their environment was very similar.
  2. Sample size in twin studies: sample sizes are very small, can’t be generalised
  3. Issues with psychoanalytic theory: although assumptions can be made about females, the theory only accounts for trans males. also, it’s difficult to test separation anxiety as it is said to occur at an unconscious level.
  4. Issues with cognitive theory: little explanation as to why a child may become interested in activities not consistent with own sex.

A2- Psychology (7 decks)

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