issues and debates Flashcards
what is gender
behavioural, cultural and psychological characteristics that distinguish males from females
what is Universality (when applied to gender)
means that all research is assumed to apply equally to both genders. Often research has tested both genders and is mindful of both genders however sometimes biased research can occur.
what are the 3 main ways gender bias can happen:
male samples
male behavior as standard
EMPHASIS ON BIOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES
describe male samples
and example
Research including all- male samples not being made clear in the report. Some key studies in psychology have used male only samples and generalised findings to women.
eg zimbardos
describe male behavior as standard
and example
: If the behaviour of women differ from that of men, the behaviour of women is seen as a deviation from the norm.
schizophrenia classification or milgram
describe EMPHASIS ON BIOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES
and example
Any biological explanation is likely to overemphasise the anatomical differences between males and females and underplay social and external factors
depression
define Androcentrism
is the standpoint where the behaviour of men is taken as the norm and therefore if the behaviour of women differs, it is atypical
an example of Androcentrism
in psychology is the addition of the masochistic personality disorder in the DSM 3. Behaviours include self-sacrifice, rejecting the opportunity for pleasure and playing the martyr. These are arguably examples of the female role and therefore the behaviour of women was pathologised or categorised as atypical.
what are the types of gender bias
alpha
beta
describe alpha bias and an example
the attempt to exaggerate the differences between genders.
E.g. Freud said that women have weaker moral codes because they do not fully develop their superego (Freud’s theory of moral development). This means they are more likely to show immoral behaviour.
- bobo and milgram
describe beta bias and an example
: the attempt to downplay differences between genders.
E.g. the fight or flight response is assumed to be universal. However research has suggested that there may be differences; women may react differently and be more likely to ‘tend and befriend’- they are more likely to seek and show social support in response to a stressful situation
- types of attachment .
It has been suggested that there are four levels in which interactions can occur in relation to culture ,what are they
THE MICROSYSTEM
THE MESOSYSTEM
THE EXOSYSTEM
THE MACROSYSTEM
describe THE MICROSYSTEM
THE MICROSYSTEM: the immediate context that the person is involved in (e.g. a child face to face with their mother)
describe THE MESOSYSTEM
THE MESOSYSTEM: the variety of environments that a person encounters (e.g. a child goes to school, home, extended family homes)
describe the THE EXOSYSTEM
THE EXOSYSTEM: the context that can affect the individual even when they do not go there because they interact with the microsystems (e.g. the interaction between a child’s home and their parents workplace)
describe the THE MACROSYSTEM
THE MACROSYSTEM: this is the culture that an individual grows up in e.g. British culture. Culture has a direct effect on the other systems and this can sometimes skew research. Researchers have their own macrosystem which can affect their objectivity as a researcher.
describe universality in culture
It is often assumed that research findings will generalise globally.
This could be a biased viewpoint however as much of the research is carried out in western cultures.
A lot of psychological research does consider the perspectives of other cultures and therefore good research may be universal.
what is culture bias
BIAS: Because psychology takes the scientific standpoint and clusters people into groups to formulate laws that apply to everyone, cultural bias has occurred. In reality much of the research has been conducted in western universities and therefore the findings only really apply to this population. Cultural differences should be tested and this does not always happen. Researchers sometimes assume that their culture is the norm which is a biased point of view.
describe ETHNOCENTRISM
ETHNOCENTRISM: The assumption that one ethnic group is superior to another or all others and that the behaviour in that group is the norm.
describe CULTURAL RELATIVISM
CULTURAL RELATIVISM is the opinion that there is no global right or wrong and that it is important to consider the behaviour of the individual within their culture before making a judgement. Context is vital in behaviour. Social norms are culturally relative as what is considered acceptable in one culture may be unacceptable elsewhere.
What are the areas of debate
Free will v determinism Nature v nurture Holism v reductionism Ideographic v nomothetic Psychology and science
Define free will
The ability to make decisions and choose behaviours freely , behaviour that is under the control of the volition (will) of an individual rather than other forces
Define determinism
A belief that all behaviour is caused by prior events, external or internal factors , determinism leaves no room for alternatives
What are the types of determinism
Internal - biological and psychic
External- environment
Biological - influenced by 5 subtypes , instinctive needs, controlling role of the brain and hormonal systems , evolutionary forces and genetics
Biological/internal determinism
-instinctive needs
We can choose when we eat sleep or drink but these behaviours are essential to our survival . We have no choice
Biological/internal determinism
-controlling role of parts of the brain
The hypothalamus controls water and food intake and aggressive responses . Language centres are in the left hemisphere , if one of these areas is damaged no amount of willing will make it work again
Biological/internal determinism
-hormonal system
There is evidence to suggest that sexual preference is a result of hormones
Meyer behlburg 1995
Biological/internal determinism
- evolutionary forces
The fight or flight responses comes from our evolutionary past but the behaviours are still useful today . The response of the ANS is uncontrollable , therefore determinism
Biological/internal determinism
Genetics
Numerous twin studies have pointed towards genetic predisposition to certain behaviours eg schizophrenia
Describe Biological/internal determinism
Biological determinism places limits on the behaviours that are beyond the capabilities of the human body
Although the biological approach is concerned with biological causes of behaviour , it is not wholly concerned with biological determinism. This means that it acknowledges the role of the environment on behaviour ( calm and peaceful reduces response to stress )
Describe psychic determinism
- The belief that all thought and behaviour is caused by unconscious forces associated with life and death forces
- this is a view represented by psychoanalytic theory
- humans are determined by strong inherent instincts , repressed conflicts , childhood experiences , memories within the unconscious mind
- mental activity and therefore behaviour are a result of the unconscious mind
name the 5 types of biological / internal determinism
—instinctive needs
- controlling role of parts of brain
- hormonal systems
- evolutionary forces
- genetics
Psychic determination according to Freud
He believed that there were no accidents or random behaviours , they could always be accounted for by unconscious mental processes
Unconscious process appear to be free but according to Freud , free will is an illusion
What’s the problem with psychic determinism
It can’t be observed as theses no empirical evidence to support it , however there’s none to go against it so unfalsifiable
Describe environmental determinism
The belief that all behaviour is under the control of environmental stimuli and external forces of reward and punishment ( behaviourist approach )
The behaviourist approach represents the extreme in environmental determinism, regarding behaviour as the product of prior reinforcement and punishment , skinner states that free will is an illusion caused by inconsistent and uncontrollable reinforcement
-classical conditioning, operant conditioning , SLT
skinner also states that successful conditioning does not require any element of free will but consistent reinforcement
-there is no such thing as free will and the causes of behaviour are hidden in the environment
For each one , are they internal or external
Biological
Psychic
Environment
Internal
Internal
External
Evaluation or determinism
- determinism is compatible with the scientific method, giving psychology the status of a science . Implying that all behaviour has a cause and therefore be predicted and controlled
- however there are numerous influences not behaviour and it is false to assume that accurate predictions are possible
- an important issue raised by determinism is moral responsibility
- if behaviour has an external cause then the person should not be held accountable for that behaviour , they should not be punished or praised
- however this is not how most societies view behaviour , we have a justice system which seeks responsibility and punishment
Define free will
The ability to make decisions and chose behaviours freely ; behaviours that is under the control of volition (will ) of an individual rather than other forces
Describe scientific emphasis on casual explanations
The use of the scientific method is common throughout psychology
1- they must develop a theory then hypothesis
2- test this using empirical methods
3- If significant effect is shown, there must be a casual explanation
- by changing one factor at a time and controlling all others , causation can be implied
- determinism is all about causation
- however because not all experiments show causation all of the time , there must be another explanation eg free will
James William suggested that the word soft determinism be used instead of
Free will
There is only free will if
There is no compulsion or forces
Define soft determinism
Is the belief that behaviour is determined or caused by a persons own character , wishes or conscious desired goals . Behaviour is free from coercion not free from causation
Define hard determinism
Is the belief that behaviour is caused by events outside ones own control . Behaviour is predictable and determined
How free will can be tested
The lack of operational definition means that free will or soft determinism cannot meet the rigours of scientific testing . Abstract and hypothetical concerns such as free will should be defined in terms of measurable and observable observations eg hunger is an abstract concept . It does not exist in material terms . It is a state that results from food deprivation . However despite being an abstract concept it can be Measured in terms of hours since food was last consumed . So it can be operationally defined and scientifically teste
Research for free will
Libert
-participants were asked to hold out their arms in front of them and then when ready ,to flex their wrists . This occurred over several trials . The measured to start of the wrist flexing movement (measured my electrodes on head ) , the start readiness to act (measured by electrodes on scalp ) participants had to say where the spot was in the clock face , when made the decision they flexed wrist
Results - the activity in the brain began half a second before the participant reported the decision
Evaluate- Accurate measure for timing external stimuli, no reason why people should be less accurate within own private decisions
-wrist action not an everyday spontaneous decision in real life
Evaluations for free will
- everyday experiences gives the impression that we constantly exercising free will through the choices we make in any given day , gives face validity
- internal locus of control , believing they have a high degree of influence over events and their own behaviour
-neurology studies of decision making have revealed evidence against free will , Chung siong soon et al demonstrated that the brain activity that determines the outcomes of simple choices may predate our knowledge of having a choice
What research can be used for free will
Libert
define social sensitivity and an example
areas of research that are more controversial eg race and sexuality
eg bowlbys 44 thieves - doesn’t have social sensitivity as it suggest that if you leave your child they’ll turn into psychopaths
define nature
human characteristics and even some aspects of knowledge are innate, the result of hereditary characteristics are genetic
define nurture
environmental influences that contribute to our behavioural characteristics
define nativism
( nature nurture )
is the view that certain skills or abilities are native or hand wired into the brain at birth eg moral intuition or colour preference
define empiricism
( nature nurture )
theory of knowledge which emphasises those aspects of scientific knowledge that are closely related to experiences
the mind is a blank slate when born , and knowledge is acquired through action
what are the methods of investigating contribution of nature nurture
- twin studies and adoption studies
- MZ or DZ twins reared together or apart, separate hereditary and environment
evaluate the methods of investigating nature nurture
ad- tell us whether important behaviours are heredity , this is important for treating disorders like schizopheria
disad- not generalizable not representative of everyone
-small sample size , cant support the debate
topics to use for nature nurture
gender
- atypical chromosomes eg turners syndrome
- gender schema theory , media and culture
addiction
- dopamine hypothesis , neurochemistry
- social learning theory , schedules of reinforcement ( gambling )
approaches to use for nature nurture
biological
- genes , chromosomes , brain structure , hormones
- phenotype and environment
cognitive
- born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours
- but as we get older our schemas become more detailed
topics to use for free will and determinism
addiction
- initial act of addiction eg first time smoking
- biological determinism , genetic vulnerability
social influence
- resistance to obedience
- conformity and obedience
approaches to use for free will and determinism
biological
- behaviour is genetically determined by genes and hormones
- sex change or gender change
SLT
- we can chose role models and when we display the behaviour
- stimulus and response
topics to use for ideographic and nomothetic
schizophrenia
- CBT individual treatment
- drug treatment same for everyone
memory
- HM
- MSM, Murdock , WWM
approaches to use for ideographic and nomothetic
biological
- case studies , HM, twin
- everyone has genes and neurochemicals which change behaviour
psychodynamic
- freuds case study method
- everyonr goes through the psychosexual stages , and , ID. EGO . SUPEREGO
topics to use for holism and reductionist
addiction
- biological and genetics
- however considers different risk factors
approaches to use for holism and reductionist
humanism
- doesn’t break behaviour into smaller components
- hierarchy of needs, or client centred therapy
SLT
- lab experiments , bobo doll
- considers mediational processes or role models
define the interactionist approach
( nature nurture )
the idea that nature and nurture are linked to such an extent that it does not make sense to separate the two, so researchers instead study how they interact and influence each other
define diathesis stress model
nature nurture
assumes that mental illness occurs due to stressful conditions in the environment interacting with the biological and psychological characteristics
pikka tienari et al- finnish adoptes most likely to develop schizophrenia had biological relatives with a history of disorder and had dysfunctional relationships
define epigenetics
( nature nurture )
refers to a change in our genetic activity without changing our genetic code, caused by interaction by the environment . eg smoking and pollution leaves epigenetics on DNA
-enters a third element into the nature nurture debate , the life experiences of previous generations
brian dias- shocked rats when the scent acetophenane , the mice feared when the scent was present. the rats offspring also feared the smell
evaluations of nature nurture debate
ads-the use of lab experiments , more reliable in assessing twin studies because it can separate genetics from environment, valid empherical data
-can help to identity behaviours that are inherit and learned and lead to appropriate or useful interventions
disads-too reductionist , simplistic to divide behaviours into either nature or nurture eg social learning theory , important to look at interactionist model , however its easy to understand
-deterministic as it claims that a behaviour is inherit may fail to account for the effects of the environment
describe idiographic approach
- an approach or method in psychology that is concerned with understanding behaviour through studying individual cases
- this view argues that everyone is unique and therefore must be studied in an individual way to capture the richness of human behaviour . no general laws are possible
- view holds an humanistic approach
features and methods of investigating idiographic
- key feature is the individual and recognition of their uniqueness
- individuality includes, private subject experiences , feeling, beliefs and values
- these are investigated in an individual , personal , detailed way
- case studies is a preferred method
- self report method such as diaries
- the main form of data collected is descriptive
describe the nomothetic approach
- an approach or method that is concerned with developing general laws of behaviour that apply to all
- it involves studying large numbers of people and trying to understand why they behave in similar ways in certain situations
- this approach is important as it supports psychology as a science
describe the features and methods of investigation of nomothetic approach
- features are the similarities between people and laws that govern behaviour
- general laws can be of three kinds ( Radford and Kirby
- classifying people into various groups
- establishing principles of behaviour that can be applied to people in general
- establishing dimensions on which people can be placed and compared
- scientific and quantitative methods such as lab experiments are used
evaluations of ideographic
- lacks generalisability
- provides a complete understanding of the individual
- findings can be the source of ideas or hypotheses for later study
evaluations so nomothetic
- predictions can be made , but don’t apply to everyone
- laws are often a close fit eg IQ
- supports psychology as a science
- loss of the person as a whole
final comments on idiographic and nomothetic
- both need to be used
- they are contradictory and complementary at the same time
define holism
the argument that behaviour should be viewed as a whole
define reductionists
the belief that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into smaller constituted parts
single explanation or cause is suggested
describe biological reductionism
is based on the premises that we are biological organism made up of physiological structures and processes . thus, all behaviour is at some level biological and so can be explained through neurochemical, evolutionary and genetics influences
describe environmental reductionist
the behaviourist approach is built on environmental reductionism . behaviourists study observable behaviour only , and in doing so , break complex learning into stimulus response links that are measurable within the laboratory . thus the key unit of analysis occur sat the physical level , the behaviourist approach does not concern itself with mental cognitive processes of the mind that occurs at the psychological level . the mind is regarded as a black box, irrelevant to our understanding of behaviour
describe the levels of explanation in psychology
the notion of levels of explanation suggests that there are different ways of viewing the same phenomena in psychology , some are more reductionist than others
eg OCD
- socio cultural context - washing hand
- psychological level- obsessive thoughts
- physical - sequence of washing hands
- neurochemical- low serotonin
each level is more reductionist than the one before
evaluation of holism vs reductionist
- a reductionist explanation may mean that other explanations are ignored and underplayed . in the case of mental illness this could lead to a reoccurrence of the issue as all the factors have not been considered
- reductionist explanations means that am explanation can be tested as there are fewer factors to consider. this means that empirical work can be conducted on an explanation and this gives academic weight
- holistic explanations provide a more complex and global understanding of behaviour than reductionist approach
- holism , if we accept there are many factors that contribute to eg depression it becomes difficult to establish which is most influential and which one to use
