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gender Flashcards

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1
Q

define sex

A

the biological differences between male and females including chromosomes, hormones and anatomy

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2
Q

define gender

A

the psychological and cultural differences between male and females including attitudes, behaviours and social roles

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3
Q

define sex role stereotypes

A

type of qualities and characteristics seen as appropriate for each sex

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4
Q

define androgeny

A

co existence of male and female characteristics within the same individual

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5
Q

what research can be used for sex role stereotypes

A

seavey et al (1975)

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6
Q

describe seavy et al research

A

3 month old baby dressed in yellow. then said to one adult it was a boy , to another he said it was a girl and to the other the gender wasn’t revealed. they were left with three toys to play with the baby, a doll, a ball, a plastic ring

  • given the doll to play with if they thought it was a girl
  • but were more likely to give it the non stereotypical toy ( ring ) if they didn’t know or if they thought it was a boy
  • results show that males and females react to babies differently according yo what gender they believe them to be
  • certain toys seen appropriate for certain genders
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7
Q

describe the androgeny bem research

A

respondents required to rate themselves on a seven point rating scale for each item. the scores are classified on the basis if two dimensions eg masculine and feminine

  • 20 female traits
  • 20 male traits
  • 20 neutral traits
  • most females scored as feminine and most males scored as masculine
  • more people were more androgynous than the extremes , these are more psychologically health as can deal with a range of situations

strengths

  • appears to be valid and reliable
  • high test retest reliability

weaknesses

  • over simplifies a complex concept
  • cultural and historic biased
  • lacks temporal validity
  • understanding of personality
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8
Q

what does the biological explanation include

A

hormones and chromosomes

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9
Q

what are the main hormones in gender

A

testosterone
oestrogen
oxytocin

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10
Q

describe testosterone

A

a hormone that is produced mainly in the males testes and in small amounts in the ovaries

  • adds masculinity
  • associated with male type behaviours eg aggression, competitiveness and higher sex drive
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11
Q

research for testosterone

A

nanne van poll et al

showed that female rats who had been injected with testosterone became more physically and sexually aggressive

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12
Q

describe oestrogen

A

promotes development and maintenance of female characteristics of the body ( eg breasts , adds femininity ) and regulates menstruation
-psychological effects eg pre menstrual tension, and female typical behaviours eg sensitivity and cooperation

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13
Q

research for oestrogen

A

albert and pepe
found that increasing oestrogen levels in pregnant baboons led to heightened cortisol production which assisted with the development in the foetus

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14
Q

describe oxytocin

A

released at birth and released when breast feeding . also affects female social behaviours such as mate selection and resting behaviours such as nurturing, acceptance and protection

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15
Q

research for oxytocin

A

van leengoed
-injected an antagonist of oxytocin after birth to inhibit oxytocin production . mothers showed a delay in maternal behaviours

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16
Q

describe the biological aspects of males and females

A

This explains differences between males and females in terms of their physical differences.
There are three types of physical characteristics referred to by biological theorists-
1- Chromosomal sex- every person has a 23rd pair of chromosomes which determine their biological sex. Male: XY Female: XX
2- The Gonads- these are the ovaries in females or the testes in males
3- Hormonal influences-
Male = androgens (testosterone) oxytocin
Female = oestrogen and progesterone oxytocin

These hormones result in different sexual characteristics.
Physical gender is determined by these three characteristics

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17
Q

describe The gene called SRY

A

Determines gender characteristics and is important for testis formation.
SRY stands for sex-determining region Y gene)
In the cell, it binds to other DNA and in doing so distorts it dramatically out of shape. This alters the properties of the DNA and likely alters the expression of a number of genes, leading to testis formation.

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18
Q

what are the two types of atypical chromosome patterns

A

turners syndrome

klinefelters syndrome

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19
Q

describe turners syndrome

A

Females develop with only one X chromosome. It affects 1 in 2,500 females.
They have an external female appearance but do not mature at puberty

physical characteristics

  • no ovaries
  • do not develop breasts
  • short
  • webbed neck

psychological characteristics

  • higher than average verbal ability
  • lower than average spatial ability
  • difficulties relating to peers
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20
Q

describe klinefelters syndrome

A

Males have an extra X chromosome. It affects 1in 1,000.
They have a male appearance

physical characteristics

  • little body hair
  • some breasts develop
  • undersized penises

psychological characteristics

  • lack of interest in sexual activity
  • tend to be passive and shy
  • poor language skills and poor reading ability
  • poor judgement and handles stress badly
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21
Q

describe hormonal influences , effects on males

A

Testicular feminising syndrome-
Pre-natal development in a chromosomally normal XY male is feminised.
Person has an insensitivity to androgens.
Internal reproductive structures don’t develop but normal- looking external genitals and a shallow vagina develop at birth. At puberty breasts develop but failiure to mensurate

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22
Q

describe hormonal influences , effects on females

A

andrenogenital syndrome
A chromosomally normal XX female is exposed to an excessive level of androgens at the critical period when sexual differentiation occurs.
Internal repreductive organs are unaffected but external structures resemble those of a male infant

internally females, externally male

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23
Q

what are other disorders of males and females

A

hermaphroditism

transsexualism

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24
Q

describe hermaphroditism

A

A person has the physical characteristics of both male and female but is reared successfully as one or the other.

25
Q

describe transsexualism

A

Some individuals who are unhappy with the sex they are and have an operation to become a member of the opposite sex are said to be transsexuals

26
Q

evaluation of biological explanation

A

-evidence supports the view that biological differences between males and females affect behaviour

-social learning theorists would argue that gender is socially constructed rather thanbiological
-over emphasis on nature and ignoring social factors ( clothes worn , toys)
-oversimplifies an complex concept , simple explanation , people can change genders (gender fluid)
-

27
Q

problems with sex and gender identities

A
  • Physical gender however may not determine psychological gender.
  • This is why people have both a sex and a gender identity.
  • This may or may not be the same. Most have the same but some do not.
28
Q

the cognitive explanation includes what two theories

A
  • kohlbergs cognitive developmental theory

- gender schema theory

29
Q

describe kohlbergs theory

A

The theory argues that a child’s understanding of their gender will increase in line with their cognitive abilities.

30
Q

describe kohlbergs theory stages and what age they occur

A

gender identity- 2-3 years
- Children are able to say whether they are a boy or a girl and can identify other people’s sex,children believe you can reassign a person’s sex. They are easily fooled by appearances and may think a change in appearance changes their sex (e.g. boy wars a dress and says he is a girl)

gender stability 3-4 years They understand their sex is stable and will not change over time but they are still egocentric and don’t understand that a person’s sex being stable can also apply to others. They are still fooled by appearance (e.g. boy wars a dress and says he is a girl). They believe people sex is determined by whether they behave in a ‘masculine’ or feminine’ way.

gender constancy 4-7 years
-They now understand everybody’s sex is constant and not just their own. They realise that changing appearance doesn’t change how they feel inside about their gender and they are no longer fooled by other people’s appearance either;

31
Q

evaluations of the cognitive explanations

A
  • Kohlberg’s theory predicts little or no gender specific behaviour before children acquire gender constancy however even in infancy boys and girls show preference for stereotypical male and female toys; supported by Campbell’s research. This suggests that the gender schema theory is more reliable as children generally demonstrate gender-appropriate behaviours early on, before gender-constancy would be possible.
  • Although Kohlberg’s theory is holistic because it combines social learning and biological developmental factors, it can be described as reductionist because it doesn’t consider the influence of parents or friends on the development of gender constancy.
  • Explains the rigid definitions of gender in some children/adults; explained by the fact that children only pay attention to those things which are consistent with and confirm their schemas. Therefore, if they see someone engaging in behaviour which contradicts a schema they will fail to notice it or will purposely ignore it.
  • The cognitive explanation sees the child as playing an active role in their beliefs of gender and considering free will more than the other explanations which can be seen as too deterministic by stating that the child plays a more passive role.
32
Q

research for kohlbergs theory

A

thompson
Found that by 2, children could identify their same-sex genders from photos of boys and girls; demonstrating that children could self-label and identify others’ genders. By 3, 90% showed gender identity compared with 76% of 2 year olds, supporting its developmental nature.

33
Q

research for gender schema theory

A

CAMPBELL
Found that even infants between 3 and 18 months had a preference for watching same-sex babies and by 9 months boys showed an increase in tendency to play with ‘boy toys’. This supports the idea that young children pay more attention to their own gender and that schemas develop very early on.

34
Q

describe social learning theory for gender development

A

states that gender is learnt form other and implies that there is no psychological differences between males and females when they are born, therefore gender differences develop because of the way society treats the two sexes

children may repeat the behaviour they observe from other people but are more likely to do so if they are associated with them for example of the same sex, this is why female children usually act ore like their mothers than their fathers

35
Q

social learning theory research

A

bandura
aimed to see if children will imitate an adults behaviour more if they are the same sex . some male and female children were shown a female or male model acting either aggressively or not towards a bobo doll and their reaction when left alone with the doll was recorded. they found that males were more likely to imitate the model if they were male , whilst females imitated males more in a physical way, they were more influenced by females in their verbal abuse

36
Q

social learning theory evaluation

A
  • does not account for changes in the development of gender understanding with age
  • most experiments in lab conditions so have to imitate the modelled behaviour immediately after observing , might not happen in real life situation as
  • doesn’t explain where gender stereotypes come from
  • if gender develops through observation and reinforcement how do we explain the number of individuals that display gender inappropriate behaviour
37
Q

describe the key concepts of social learning theory

A

attention- watching others
retention- recalls what they’ve watched

  • modelling - the role model performing a certain task that the child watches
  • identification- identifies more with the same sex
  • imitation-consciously copies actions
  • reinforcement-positive consequences for behaviour
38
Q

describe gender schema theory

A

For initial understanding to develop, children don’t have to understand that gender is permanent. It results from a combination of observation of appropriate behaviours and active cognitive processing. Gender schema develops between 2 and 3 years and once gender identity is established they start to categorise information into schemas. These schemas become the foundations of interpretation and selection of behaviours which can explain why they are often sex-typed, it also explains how these schemas/stereotypes are a magnet for information. Children will then begin to show preference for same-sex friends and activities. (In-group schemas: our own gender, out-group schemas: the other gender) Gender schemas develop as cognitive abilities are enhanced when children get older.

  • Pre-schoolers learn their distinctions from observation and reinforcement from parents- f.e that boys have ‘short hair’.
  • From 4-6 children learn more complex associations for their own gender but don’t learnt these for the other gender until 8-10.
39
Q

the psychodynamic approach includes

A

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, Oedipus complex; Electra complex; identification and internalisation.

40
Q

define internalisation

A

An individual adopts the attitudes and/or behaviour or another

41
Q

define identification

A

– A desire to be associated with a particular person or group often because they possess certain desirable characteristics.

42
Q

when does the gender development occur in the psychodynamic stages of development

A

PHALLIC 36- 60 mths

43
Q

describe the phallic stage

A

Phallic stage (3 – 5 years)
The sensitivity are shifts from the anus to the genitals
Children start playing with their genitals and become fascinated by the difference between boys and girls
It is this stage where boys develop the Oedipus complex and girls develop the Electra complex

44
Q

describe the Oedipus complex

A

only boys
The boy desires his mother so fears his father will castrate him
To reduce the anxiety the boy identifies with his father and adopts his father’s behaviours
Behaving like his father will bring him closer to his mother
The child is not consciously aware of these feelings

45
Q

little hans- evidence for the Oedipus complex

A

Hans develops a phobia of horses, his father writes to Freud about the boys behaviour to allow an interpretation of his behaviour.
Hans believes that horses will bite him or fall on him.
Freud interprets Hans behaviour as Castration anxiety, this fear of his father has been displaced onto horses (defence mechanism). Hans wishes the horses would die as he wishes his father would die.

46
Q

evaluation of little hans

A

A more likely explanation of Hans phobia is that he witnessed a horse and cart accident – the behaviourist approach. Suggesting that is doesn’t support Freud’s Oedipus complex
Its a case study, and therefore it is difficult to generalise the findings
Freud never met Hans and so all the information was second hand from the boy’s father making it unreliable

47
Q

describe the electra complex

A

The Electra complex
The girls has an unconscious longing for her father and fears loss of her mothers love
The girl is not as fearful of her mother, as she thinks she has already been castrated
She identifies with mother to reduce anxiety, however it is not as strong as the boys
Se adopts her mothers characteristics

48
Q

describe identification and internalisation

A

Both these are central to gender development.
Identification with the same sex parent occurs and results in the internalisation of their behaviours and attitudes.
This helps children to form a gender identity but it is important to note that it is the identity of their parents not their own beliefs or attitudes.

49
Q

evaluation of psychodynamic

A
  • According to this theory, children raised in single parent families should have a poorly developed gender role. Research indicates this is not the case and that non nuclear families do not have an adverse effect on gender development Golombok (1983)
  • Electra complex is an inadequate account of female gender identity
  • Gender development does not only occur in the phallic stage, the Kohlberg suggests that gender identity develops gradually.
  • Unfalsifiable owing to both complexes occurring in the unconscious so are difficult to access and scientifically measure.
50
Q

how can you compare the approaches

A

-role of others
-research
-scientific
-nature/ nurture
-stages
conscious / unconscious

51
Q

how is gender identity disorder diagnosed with adults and children

A

children- through play

adults- through questioning

52
Q

what is A,B,C and D in the DSM diagnostic criteria for gender identity disorder

A

A=a strong and persistent cross gender identification ,

B=persistent discomfort with his or her sex or sense of inappropriateness in the gender role of that sex

C=the disturbance is not concurrent with a physical intersex condition

D=the disturbance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning

53
Q

define gender identity disorder

A

characterised by strong, persistent feelings of identification with the opposite gender and discomfort with ones own assigned sex , they have the desire to live as the other sex

54
Q

what’s the biological explanation for gender identity disorder

A
  • neurobiological abnormalities resulting from either genes or prenatal stress
  • over or under exposure to androgens in the womb ( over exposer for females , under expose for males ) and consequent masculine or feminism stress
  • genetic factors observed through twins
55
Q

research for the biological explanation for gender identity disorder

A

post mortem of six male to female transgender individuals , the BSTc was found to be similar size to that of a typical female brain

56
Q

what’s the psychoanalytic theory for gender identity disorder

A

gender identity disorder is caused by the child experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identify has been established

57
Q

what’s the cognitive explanation theory for gender identity disorder

A

extension of gender scheme theory that emphasises individual differences in gender identity
this theory suggests two pathways of gender development
1- the dual pathway theory . this acknowledges the development of gender schemes which then direct gender appropriate attitudes and behaviour’s as part of a normal development
2- the second personal pathway describes how the child’s gender attitudes are affected by his or her activity. here the individuals personal interests may become more dominant than the gender identity , these in turn influence the gender scheme

58
Q

evaluations for gender identity disorder

A
  • contradictory evidence for BSTs
  • twin studies are inconclusive
  • biological explanation oversimplifies a complex concept
59
Q

the psychoanalytic theory for gender identity disorder

research

A

Robert stoller
- reports said that in interviews that gender identity disorder males, they were seen to display overly close mother son relationships that would lead to greater female identification and confuse gender identity in the long term

Psychology Year 2 (5 decks)

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