Issues and debates

Question 1

Outline gender bias

Answer 1

Gender Bias is the tendency to treat a particular gender in a different way that may not justifiably represent their experience.

This can lead to differential treatment of the sexes based on stereotypes rather than real differences.

Question 2

Outline androcentrism

Answer 2

A male-centred standpoint. This means that research is conducted mostly by males, using male participants, meaning that the male experience is set as the ‘normal’ standard of behaviour, and that if females show different behaviours they may be judged as abnormal.

Question 3

Define universality

Answer 3

When a theory is universal, this means it is able to be applied to all people irrespective of gender, upbringing, culture etc: If psychology wants to be considered a scientific study of human behaviour, it should therefore be able to be applied to all people.

Question 4

Define Alpha Bias

Answer 4

When differences are suggested to be real and enduring. This can lead to the value in the other gender being minimised.

Question 5

Alpha bias research example

Answer 5

Wilson’s sociobiological theory of relationship formation. Men are biologically predetermined to try and promote the continuation of their genes, and thus try to sexually produce as much as possible in order to pass these genes on. Whereas, women’s best chances of preserving their genes is to protect the few offspring she has.

This notion suggests sexually promiscuous is genetically predetermined in males, where for women they would being going against their nature. These can lead to harmful stereotypes and the demonisation of women.

Freud argued that because girls do not suffer the same oedipal conflict as boys, they do not identify with their mothers as strongly as boys identify with their fathers, so develop weaker superegos and are thus, less moral.

Question 6

Define beta bias

Answer 6

When differences are ignored or minimised. Typically in psychological research this happens when findings on male participants are generalised to females without additional validation.

Question 7

Beta bias research examples

Answer 7

Early research on the fight or flight response was always done on male animals, due to fluctuating female hormones making research more difficult. As a result all findings have been applied to both genders, despite research showing females have biologically evolved to supress this response. Taylor has suggested in threatening situations, females have an adaptive “tend or befriend” approach. This is done by protecting their young and forming defensive networks with other females.

Asch’s research into conformity used all American male participants, yet the findings were generalised to women. Neto argues that women are more likely to conform and thus, the findings would be different.

Question 8

Outline essentialism in reference to gender bias in psychology

Answer 8

Many of the gender differences reported by psychologist are based on an essentialist perspective that gender difference is inevitable and fixed in nature.

Essentialist accounts in psychology are often politically motivated arguments disguised as biological ‘facts’ which creates a double standard for the way the same behaviour is viewed from a male and female perspective .

For example, research in the 1930s suggested that women attending University may harm their ability to have children due to issues with their ovaries. These accounts are sometimes political arguments disguised as facts.

Question 9

Outline reflectivity in psychological research

Answer 9

When potential beliefs and biases that could influence the findings of the research are highlighted. This enables conclusions to be understood in the context which shaped them.

Eg: When studying the lack of women in executive positions at accountancy firms, Dambrin and Lambert included a reflection on how their gender-related experiences influenced their readings of events. This can lead to greater awareness of the role of personal biases in shaping research in the future.

Question 10

Discussion point one - gender bias

Consequence of beta bias

Answer 10

In a society which has one gender hold more power than the other, taking a neutral stance only further benefits men and has consequences for females. For example, equal parental leave arguably minimises the biological demands placed on a woman as a result of pregnancy, breastfeeding and childbirth.

Question 11

Discussion point 2 gender bias - value of women

Answer 11

In attempts of countering the years of research which has minimised the value of women. For example, some psychologists attempt to develop theories
that emphasise the importance or value of women. Cornwell et al noted that females are better at learning, as they are more attentive and organised, thus
emphasising both the value and the positive attributes of
women.

Question 12

Discussion point 3 - gender bias
challenging previous theories on gender.

Answer 12

One of the main limitations of psychological research is
that issues of gender bias often go unchallenged.

Darwin’s established theory of sexual selection suggests that women are selective in terms of
mate selection.

These views have only recently been challenged by DNA evidence suggesting that women are equally as competitive as men when the need arises.

This highlights the importance of continually challenging
earlier gender research, and reducing gender bias to
ensure that a valid picture of women is portrayed in
contemporary studies.

Question 13

Discuss the main consequences of gender bias within psychological research.

Answer 13

Can result in misleading assumptions about female behaviour, fail to change negative stereotypes and validate discriminatory behaviour. May provide a scientific ‘justification’ to deny women opportunities in the workplace. THUS, gender bias is not just a methodological problem but can have damaging consequences which can affect the lives and prospects of real women.

There is a lack of women being appointed at senior researcher level, meaning female concerns may not be reflected in research questions.

Nicolson also outlined how female participants in laboratory experiments are at a disadvantage as are vulnerable to being labelled being unreasonable and irrational. These sexist views can be used as excuses to deny the inclusion of women within psychological research.

Question 14

Define culture bias

Answer 14

The tendency to view and interpret all phenomena through the lens of our own culture, ignoring the influences of cultural differences and how this can impact behaviour.

Question 15

Outline culture bias within psychological research

Answer 15

Henrich found after reviewing 100s of psychological studies that 68% of participants came from the USA and 96% came from industrialised nations. This led him to coin the term “WEIRD” to describe the type of participants used in research; White, educated, industrialised, rich and democratic individuals.

Bond and Smith found when looking into social psychology textbooks, 98% of studies were either American or Western-European, leaving only the remaining 2% to come from other cultures.

Arnet 80% of participants were undergraduates studying psychology.

Therefore, findings that are generalised to explain all human behaviour are coming from a select group of people.

Question 16

Define ethnocentrism

Answer 16

When researchers see and judge and judge another culture by the standards and values of their own, presuming their own cultural norms set the standard for all behaviour. In extreme cases, ethnocentrism can lead to discrimination and prejudice.

Ainsworth’s “strange situation” is an example of ethnocentrism, using the standards of Western society to assess the behaviour of other cultures. The “ideal” attachment was suggested to be characterised by moderate levels of both stranger and separation anxiety.

This meant that when measuring attachment in other cultures, a disproportionate amount of children were classified as having insecure attachments due to not being measured against their own societal norms. For example, Takahashi found in Japan a large proportion of children were said to be insecure resistant due to extreme signs of separation anxiety and German infants were categorised as avoidant to due high levels of independence. These different results were presented as ‘abnormal’ and in need of explanation rather than considering that the differences are due to cultural differences in how children are raised.

For example, in Japan it is a rare occurrence for infants to be without their mother and so high levels of distress when she left the room was actually a reasonable response by Japanese standards.

Question 17

Define etic and emic

Answer 17

Etic - is when behaviour is studied outside a culture and is described as universal and attempted to be generalised to all other cultures.

Imposed etic is when theories are considered to be universal based on emic research. Ainsworth’s study is an example of imposed etic.

Emic - when behaviour is approached within a culture and is identified as specific to that particular cultural context.

Question 18

Outline cultural relativism

Answer 18

Research about behaviour can only be meaningful if it is understood within the specific cultural context it was drawn from.

Sternberg outlined how intelligence is perceived differently in differing societies and cultures. For example, motor skills and coordination may be valued more in pre-literate societies opposed to more developed cultures which value knowledge on various topics. Therefore, these differences show intelligence of a culture cannot be measured in a way which is not applicable to their own cultural context. This can result in invalid conclusions being drawn based on beliefs rather than factual content.

Question 19

Discussion points of culture bias

Answer 19

Real life consequences - culture bias can be used to provide justifications of racist and discriminatory behaviour towards certain ethnic groups.

For example, during WW1 the US Army had over 2 million recruits complete an IQ test. Many of the components were ethnocentric and were tailored towards knowledge on American culture. This resulted in African-Americans and individuals from Eastern European cultures scoring significantly lower. However, this poor performance is more likely to be due to them not being assessed on knowledge specific to their own culture, rather than a lack of intelligence. However, these findings shaped by a culture bias were used to justify restricting certain ethnic groups from educational opportunities based on the grounds that they were deemed genetically inferior.

Culture bias can begin to be dealt with by first recognising it when it occurs - eg: Bond and Smith. Cross cultural replication studies benefit from promoting greater sensitivity to cultural relativism and challenging stereotypes. They are more likely to produce more valid conclusions as the findings are understood on the cultural context it has be drawn from.

Arguments that culture bias is no longer relevant in modern psychology. The increase in globalisation in media has been said to diminish the divide between cultures. Bond and Smith criticised Asch’s study for being culture bound; partipants were all American undergraduates yet conclusions drawn about conformity were generalised to everyone. However, Bond and Smith argued that collectivist cultures would see higher rates of conformity. However, Osaka found when comparing Japanese and American “Asch” like studies 14/15 of these showed no such individualist/collectivist divide. Therefore, suggesting culture is not as relevant of a factor on the influence of behaviour.

Question 20

Eval 3: indigenous psychologies

Answer 20

The emphasis placed on the importance of culturally relative research and the increased awareness of cultural diversity, has led to the emergence of indigenous psychologies which attempt to develop theories drawn explicitly from the particular experiences of people within different cultural contexts.

One example is Afrocentrism which argues that as all black people have their roots originating from Africa, theories about them, must recognise the African context of attitudes and values. This contrasts other approaches which make universal descriptions of behaviour based on the values of European and Western norms.

As a result of these new approaches, psychological theories cannot only be more relevant to the lives of people in Africa, but can also offer people far removed from their African origins valuable insights into explanations of their behaviour.

Question 21

Outline the debate of holism vs reductionism within psychology

Answer 21

When studying human behaviour, psychology must consider if it is more appropriate to break behaviour down into its component parts or look at the whole picture in its entirety.

Question 22

Outline holism in psychology

Answer 22

Holistic approaches take into the account the whole of an individual and their experiences when making conclusions about their behvaiour.

For example, the humanism takes a holistic approach to explaining human behaviour; taking into account the entirety of an individual’s subjective experiences, feelings and perspectives before making conclusions about their behaviour. Because of this humanistic approaches use ideographic methods to study behaviour such as case studies in order to account for the unique context of an individual rather than making universal generalisations.

Question 23

Outline reductionism in psychology

Answer 23

Reductionist approaches operate on the principles of parsimony and that the best explanations are the ones which are simplest and fit the evidence. Reductionist approaches therefore, study behaviour by breaking it down into its simplest components and then studying these empirically.

There are different types of reductionism with each isolating behaviour down to the component that underpins its approach. For example, biological reductionism is when behaviour is reduced down to solely physiological mechanisms and biological processes. Another example is environmental reductionism which argues all behaviour can be simplified down to stimulus response bonds learnt via experience.

Question 24

Outline the levels of explanations within psychology

Answer 24

Differing approaches for explaining certain phenomena, from those at a more fundamental level and focussing on the basic components of something (biological level) to those at a higher more holistic and multivariable level (socio-cultural explanation)

Question 25

Evaluate holism and reductionism

Answer 25

Reductionism is congruent with the scientific method:
Reductionist approaches break down complex behaviours into small constituent parts, thus enabling these variables to be scientifically tested in isolation. By objectively testing for variables in controlled environments, reductionist approaches can therefore better establish causation and conclusions. Eg: by measuring S-R bonds via the use of Skinner Boxes. By being scientific, reductionist approaches can more easily draw conclusions and additionally improve the scientific status of psychology by placing it lower down the levels of explanations along with the natural sciences.

Practical value of reductionism:
Practically, reductionism supports the development of empirical testing of treatments such as drug therapies. These therapies which are rooted in reductionist theories of behaviour have helped millions of individuals with improving their mental well-being, thus giving it practical applications. For example, a biologically reductionist approach to OCD has suggested the disorder is the result of low serotonin levels. This has led to the development of SSRIs used to treat such disorders and have been found by Soomro to be significantly more effective at alleviating the symptoms of OCD compared to a placebo.

More valid conclusions on behaviour:
Reductionist approaches cannot validly explain all aspects of behaviour as they reduce it down to individual parts. Social behaviour which only emerges in group contexts cannot be effectively understood by studying each group member in isolation. For example, when looking into the role of conformity and deindividuation in the Stanford prison experiment, Zimbardo was more focussed on the interactions within the group, opposed to studying each participant individually. Therefore, by taking into account the entirety of the context in which behaviour occurs, holistic approaches can provide more complete explanations for behaviour.

Question 26

Outline the free will vs determinism debate

Answer 26

Is human behaviour a free choice made by autonomous agents or is it something we cannot control that is influenced by factors beyond us.

Question 27

Outline the free will debate

Answer 27

This perspective suggests that we have agency over our actions and our self-determined. This doesn’t mean there aren’t biological and environmental forces which exert influence over our behaviour, but free will suggests that these influences are not necessarily determinant and we are capable of rejecting them.

This means rewards and punishments have value and we are thus morally responsible and so can be held accountable for our actions. The humanistic approach is grounded in the concept of free will and that an individual has autonomy when shaping their life.

Question 28

Outline the deterministic debate

Answer 28

Free will is merely an illusion, thus the concept of rewards and punishments are rendered meaningless as we cannot be held morally responsible for our actions. Determinism operates on the same laws of universal causation as the other natural sciences; behaviour therefore is just a consequence of previous determined actions and is therefore predictable.

Hard determinism assumes that everything we think and do is dictated by internal and external factors for which we have no control over.

Soft determinism - provides a middle ground between the two extremes, suggesting we have an element of choice within our behaviour, however these choices are constrained by internal and external factors.

Biological determinism - behaviour is the result of physiological structures and biological processes. For example, the role of the ANS during times of stress is not controlled by conscious activity.

Psychic determinism - behaviour is the result of unresolved conflicts and internalised views from authoritative figures in childhood and innate drives. For example our gender identity is determined by the successful resolution of the Oedipus and Electra complex which is based on the successful identification with one’s same sex parent.

Environmental determinism - our behaviour is the result of environmental experiences and learnt associations. Any experience of “choice” is just the summation of previous experiences of reinforcement influencing our later behaviour.

Question 29

Evaluate the free will and deterministic perspective

Answer 29

Compatible with the legal system:
The UK legal system operates on the ethos that we are free agents who could have acted otherwise, thus we can be held morally responsible for our actions. If we were to take an approach from determinism, the notion of moral responsibility would be rendered meaningless and there would be no value to rewards and punishments. Therefore, a hard determinism approach could have severe consequences on the stability of society as criminals could argue their behaviour was determined in order to mitigate any form of responsibility.

Better for mental wellbeing:
Roberts identified when examining the mental wellbeing of adolescents, those with a high internal locus control, and thus felt in control of their lives and their actions, were less vulnerable to the symptoms of depression, in contrast to those with a low internal locus of control. This suggests that whilst “freedom” can never be empirically proven we should believe have it regardless.

Research support for determinism:
When examining the neural processes involved in decision making, Libet et al found that the related potentials reflected the participants decision to either flex a finger or a wrist before they were consciously aware of making a decision to do so. This suggests that what we think is a free choice could actually be a neurological predetermined process we are just unaware of.

Compatible with the scientific method:
It is consistent with the aims of science. The notion that human behaviour is orderly and obeys laws of universal causation, places psychology on equal footing with other more established sciences. In addition, the value of such research is that the prediction and control of human behaviour has led to the development of treatments, therapies and behavioural interventions that have benefitted many, such as psychotherapeutic drug treatment in controlling and managing SZ.

Mental illnesses contradict the idea of free will:

However by being scientific and creating general universal laws for behaviour, a deterministic approach negates the role and influence of individual differences.

Question 30

Conclusion of free will/determinism debate