Approaches Flashcards
Outline Introspection
Evaluate Introspection
Outline the behaviourist approach to explaining behaviour
After rejecting early attempts to explain behaviour such as Wundt’s introspection, on the grounds that consciousness is unobservable and thus difficult to measure, behaviourism is focused on observable behaviour that can be measured through scientific methods.
The behaviourist approach assumes that all behaviour is the result of learnt environmental experiences, and one of two types of conditioning.
Classical conditioning refers to learning via association; when a ns is repeatedly paired with an ucs, it will eventually become conditioned and elicit the same response. Pavlov demonstrated how dogs could learn to salivate at the sound of a bell alone (NS) after it was repeatedly rung in the presence of food which naturally produced this response.
Operant conditioning refers to learning through consequences, either reinforcement or punishment. S-R bonds can be strengthened when the desired behaviour is positively reinforced by earning a pleasant reward, or negatively reinforced through the removal of an unpleasant stimulus. Conversely, the S-R bond is weakened when behaviour is punished by receiving a negative consequence, in turn decreasing the likelihood of someone repeating the same behaviour.
Skinner demonstrated how rats learnt to pull a leaver when they were positively reinforced by being given food pellets.
Evaluate the behaviourist approach to explaining behaviour
A03 - scientific method
Emphasis on scientific method increases reliability of the behaviourist approach.
Studies objectively observable and measurable stimulus-response mechanisms, through highly controlled lab experiments.
For example, when demonstrating operant conditioning on rats, Skinner used a Skinner box to allow for complete control of the organisms environment. Such control allows for the influence of extraneous variables to minimised, thus enabling causal relationships to be more easily established. Likewise, controlled experiments are easier to replicate, in turn making behaviourists research more reliable.
This not only increases the validity of conclusions made about behaviour by the behaviourist approach but also allows psychology to be placed on an equal footing to the natural sciences; The emphasis on scientific principles such as objectivity and replicability deepens the scientific status and credibility of psychology.
Behaviourist AO3 - generalisability and ethcis
However, such research used by the behavioural approach can be criticised for lacking generalisability.
Both Skinner’s work on operant conditioning and Pavlov’s on classical, utilised animals to draw their conclusions on human behaviour from. Humans are cognitively and physiologically different from animals, therefore findings made on animals should not be extrapolated to humans without additional validation. Therefore, the behavioural explanation for human may be limited in its validity.
Moreover, there are ethical issues with such studies. Skinner starved the rats prior to the experiment to ensure they were hungry and Pavlov’s dogs had their salivary glands slit. So whilst this research has provided valuable insights into influences on behaviour, it must be discussed whether the harm caused to animals is worth such insights. Therefore as the behaviourist approach is based off unethical research it is limited.
Behaviourist approach AO3 - practical applications
Mowrer’s dual process model utilises the principles of classical and operant conditioning to explain how phobias are both acquired and maintained.
Such models have formed the basis of behavioural therapies that attempt to extinguish the an individuals response of fear with their phobic stimulus. Gilroy found that patients with arachnophobia were less fearful after having systematic desensitisation sessions than those who did not.
Therefore, the success of such practical applications not only improve the welfare of individuals but also improve the credibility of the behavioural approach as the effectiveness of these therapies suggest the theories they’re based off are valid.
Behaviourism AO3 - reductionist
The behaviourist approach can be seen as reductionist as it attempts to reduce down all behaviour into simple stimulus-response mechanisms acquired through environmental experiences.
This oversimplification means the behaviourist approach struggles to account for more complex behaviour such as language acquisition. Therefore, as it can’t account for all behaviours it is limited as a sole explanation for human behaviour. Alternative approaches therefore may be more viable such as the cognitive approach which aims to provide a more comprehensive account these complex mental processes.
Similarly, by being reductionist, behaviourism negates other factors implicated in human behaviour. For example, the role of biological mechanisms implicated in unlearnt behaviours ie: the fight or flight response. This means the behaviourist approach cannot be solely relied on for an explanation to human behaviour.
Outline Social Learning Theory’s approach to explaining human behaviour
Bandura proposed SLT as an approach to explaining human behaviour. He similarly agreed with previous behaviourists that behaviour was the product of learnt experiences, however he expanded on this concept arguing learning could occur indirectly.
SLT argues that our behaviour can be acquired through the observation an then imitation of people we view as role models. These models can be people in our everyday lives such as friends or family but can also be symbolic models we view in the media, and their behaviour acts a template for our actions.
We are more likely to replicate the behaviour of models we identify with, either with similar characteristics to ourselves or if they have traits we deem to be attractive and therefore want to be like.
Imitation is also more likely to occur if we witness the model being rewarded for it. This is as we identify and thus associate ourselves to the model, thereby making us believe we will receive the same positive consequences if we were to replicate the same behaviour. This process is referred to as vicarious reinforcement. Conversely, imitation is less likely to occur if we are vicariously punished by seeing a model’s actions receive negative consequences.
SLT outlines the influence of mental processes in the role of behaviour. The mediational processes of attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation will determine whether an observed behaviour will be emulated
SLT AO3 - research support
SLT is supported by robust evidence.
Bandura demonstrated that when 3-5 year olds were exposed to an aggressive model behave violently towards a Bobo doll, they later imitated this same aggression when placed in a room of toys. As this was not the case for the control group who did not witness the same aggressive role model, this indicates that the children learnt social behaviours through a process of observational learning. Moreover, boys were more likely to imitate male models opposed to female, thus supporting the key concept of identification in SLT.
Banduras experiment was conducted in highly controlled conditions, meaning extraneous variables could be accounted for in turn making it easier to establish causal relationships and increase the replicability of the study. SLT being supported by such studies increases the reliability of claims they make about human behaviour, as well as increasing the scientific status of psychology by utilising research grounded in scientific principles such as objectivity and replicability.
SLT AO3 - reductionist
However, SLT can be seen as reductionist by simplifying something as complex as behaviour to solely the result of environmental interactions, thereby negating the role of other factors implicated in behaviour.
For example, Bandura’s research found that boys were consistently more aggressive than girls. As they both observed the same models, SLT alone cannot account for this difference between genders and therefore indicates biological factors such as the role of hormones may be involved. Other behaviours can similarly not be accounted for by SLT’s approach, for example the fight or flight response is a product of a physiological process, not observation and imitation.
This limits SLT’s approach to explaining huma behaviour as it does not address the role of all factors implicated in it. Therefore, meaning it cannot provide a full explanation for behaviour.
SLT AO3 - more holistic than previous approaches
Nevertheless, SLT takes a more holistic approach towards explaining human behaviour in contrast to previous attempts by behaviourists.
Bandura outlines the role of mental processes which occur between stimulus and response. This inclusion of the mediational processes and acknowledgement of the roles of rationality and motivation before displaying certain behaviours, arguably gives a more comprehensive account for human behaviour than classical and operant conditioning are able to do by themselves.
Outline the psychodynamics’ approach at explaining human behaviour
Developed by Sigmund Freud, the psychodynamic approach suggests that human behaviour is the result of unconscious drives directing the conscious mind and unresolved internal conflicts supressed from childhood.
Freud proposes that the personality consists of 3 parts. The ID is present from birth and lives solely in the primitive part of the brain in the unconscious. The ID operates on the pleasure principle seeking to receive immediate gratification. The ego is the next to develop and as the rational part of the conscious mind, operating on the reality principle, the ego mediates between the demands of the ID and the final part of the personality. The ego may also use defence mechanisms, denial, displacement and repression, to help resolve and alleviate anxiety felt from these conflicting demands. The superego is the last to develop, once a child internalises the morals and norms of their parents and society the superego acts as a conscience and operates on the morality principle.
Freud also suggests that the personality develops as a child progresses through the psychosexual stages and that one must complete each of the 5 stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital) in order to be psychologically healthy and well adjusted. Each stages involves a different focus of the libido and a conflict that must be resolved; unresolved conflicts will lead to a fixation in future adult life associated to psychosexual stage which was not completed.
Psychodynamic AO3 - explanatory power
One strength of the psychodynamic approach is that it has explanatory power, meaning despite its controversial theories, its has been used to explain human behaviour and a wide range of phenomena.
For example, Freud drew attention to the influence of early childhood experiences on later adult life. This is a widely accepted belief that past experiences can shape future behaviour and such theories have been utilised by later psychologies; Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation outlines how being deprived from maternal care in early life can lead to psychological and intellectual issues in later life.
This highlights the value in the psychodynamic approach and the influence it had during 20th century psychology and Western contemporary thought.
Psychodynamic - AO3 practical application
The psychodynamic approach has been shown to have practical value, introducing the idea of psychotherapy. Psychotherapy attempts to treat mental disorders psychologically, giving patients alternative avenues for treatment as prior to this mental disorders were treated physically.
Psychotherapies employ ranges of techniques eg: dream analysis which attempts to gain access into one’s unconscious in order to bring arise to repressed emotions in attempts of dealing with them.
However, Freudian therapies have been criticised for not being applicable or helpful to all mental disorders. For example, individuals with schizophrenia and thus have symptoms such as paranoia and hallucinations would not be able to gain access to their unconscious in a way
required by psychoanalysis. This therefore, limits the practical value the psychodynamic approach can have.
Nevertheless, despite its not being frequently used in its traditional way today, Freud’s approach to therapy has laid the groundwork for current talking therapies such as counselling which have been widely effective in improving the well being of others. Therefore, this shows the value in the psychodynamic approach as it has created a new approach to treatment which have hugely influenced the modern therapeutic fields.
Psychodynamic - AO3: falsifiability
Many aspects fundamental to the psychodynamic approach are untestable and abstract concepts, such as the id and Oedipus complex.
This makes the psychodynamic approach unfalsifiable as these factors cannot be empirically verified or tested. As a result, the psychodynamic approach decreases the scientific credibility of psychology. If psychology wants to be considered the scientific study of human behaviour, it must employ objective, replicable methods to test and verify hypothesis’.
Many of the concepts Freud brings forward came from the subjective case studies of atypical individuals. For example, the case study of little Hans was used to support Freud’s theory of the Oedipus complex. This means research could have been subject to researcher bias in which Freud misinterpreted the behaviour of Hans in order to support his hypothesis. Moreover, Ideographic methods such as case studies are individualistic making them lack generalisability and population validity. This means the psychodynamic approach may not be applicable to explain the behaviour of a wider demographic as it is based off the behaviour of select individuals.
