Aggression

Question 1

Outline the limbic systems role in aggression

Answer 1

The limbic system is a network of structures within the brain. One of its functions is to process emotional responses such as aggression. The first attempt to link limbic structures to emotional behaviours such as aggression was by Papez and later revised by Maclean

The amygdala has a key role in how an organism assesses and respond to environmental threats and challenges. The reactivity of the amygdala in humans has proven to be an important predictor of aggressive behaviour.

The hypothalamus is implicated in integrating and expressing emotional responses, such as the fight or flight response.

Question 2

Give research support of the limbic system’s role in aggression

Answer 2

Gospic et al:
fMRI brain scans were used to measure brain activity during a game designed to provoke aggression. Researchers found when participants rejected an unfair monetary reward ( which can be seen as social provocation ) there was increased activity in the amygdala.

These spikes reduced in severity when participants prior to the game were given benzodiazepines. As these drugs reduce ANS arousal, this further suggests there is a correlation between amygdala activity (action of the ANS) and aggression.)

Egger and Flynn:
Found that when different areas of cats’ hypothalamus’ were electrically stimulated, they would show aggressive behaviour towards rats. This aggressive behaviour was then either suppressed or increased when different regions of the amygdala were stimulated.

Sumer et al
Describes a case study of a girl who suffered from epileptic fits and displayed aggressive behaviour. Brain scans revealed she had a tumour in her limbic system. Doctors treated the tumour with drugs, which stopped both the seizures and aggressive behaviours.

Question 3

Evaluate the limbic system’s role in aggression

Answer 3

Whilst there is strong evidence to support a correlation between the role of the limbic system and aggression, alone, this could be an oversimplification of aggressive behaviour.

For example, the research from Coccaro et al suggests the limbic system works in tandem with the OFC. The OFC functions in the role of self control, impulse regulation and the inhibition of aggressive behaviour. Coccaro found in patients with psychotic disorders, prominently featuring aggressive symptoms, their OFC activity was reduced. This disruption to activity leads to reduced impulse control and thus increased aggression.

The regulation of aggression is highly complex and involves at least three neural structures in the brain: the amygdala, the OFC and the connection between the two.

Question 4

Outline the role of serotonin within aggression

Answer 4

Serotonin is an inhibitory neurotransmitter and a mood regulator. When present in normal levels in the OFC, when the amygdala is stimulated, and sends aggressive impulses to the OFC, serotonin can inhibit these impulses preventing aggressive behaviour.

Therefore, lower concentrations of serotonin in the OFC may result in less self control and more acts of aggression as there is nothing to inhibit these aggressive impulses. This is known as the serotonin deficiency hypothesis.

Question 5

Evaluate the role of serotonin in aggression

Answer 5

Research support:

Berman et al. conducted a study where participants given paroxetine, which increases serotonin activity, gave fewer and less intense electric shocks compared to those given a placebo, under similar provocation levels. However, this was only true of participants who had a prior history of aggression.

Yet this still provides strong evidence to suggest serotonin function and aggression are correlated.

Passamonti:

Used a technique called acute tryptophan depletion. The experimental group consumed a drink lacking in tryptophan whilst the control group consumed a drink which would not alter their tryptophan levels in the brain.

FMRI scans were used to measure the brain activity of participants when presented with images of either angry or neutral faces. When viewing the angry face, the scans showed a reduction in frontal lobe activity and communication between the frontal cortex and amygdala in the brains of participants in the experimental condition.

These participants also scored highly on an aggression questionnaire.

These results suggest that a lack of serotonin reduces the ability of the frontal cortex to to control aggressive impulses in the amygdala.

Data collected used objective methods and a double blind placebo reduced any biases, making the findings more reliable. However, the use of a questionnaire could be seen as an unreliable method of measuring aggression.

Question 6

Outline the role of testosterone in aggression

Answer 6

Testosterone is an androgen responsible for the development of masculine features. It also has a role in regulating social behaviour via its influence on certain areas of the brain implicated in aggression.

T tends to be 8x higher in males than women which can attempt to explain why aggressive behaviour is much more commonly seen in men.

Higher T levels in the OFC, reduces the OFCs ability to regulate the aggression coming from the limbic system. With decreased executive function, an individual is more prone to aggressive outbursts. High levels of T also increase amygdala activity as well as act on serotonergic synapses, lowering serotonin levels and thus decreasing the inhibition of aggressive impulses coming from the limbic system.

Question 7

Outline research into the role of testosterone within aggression

Answer 7

Wagner et al measured aggression in mice by seeing how frequently they bit a target. The male mice were shown to be much more aggressive than their female counterparts. However, this difference was removed after castration and once again came back after the male mice were injected with T. Similarly, the female mice bit the target more frequently after injections of T.

Dolan et al:
Showed that violent prisoners in
maximum security prisons displayed higher levels of testosterone than their non-violent counterparts.

Mehta and Robert Josephs
Measured changes in participants T levels before and after losing a competitive game. After their loss, participants were asked whether they wanted to challenge their victorious opponent to a rematch (the aggressive option) or or complete an unrelated task (non-aggressive).

73% or participants whose T levels rose chose to rematch compared to 22% of participants whose T levels decreased.

This suggests T may lead to dominance and status seeking behaviour and aggression is the way this behaviour is expressed. This suggestion supports Mazur BMoS.

Evidence of the link between testosterone and aggression in humans is mixed. Mehta and Josephs dual hypothesis demonstrates how high serotonin levels can result in the display of aggressive behaviour, but only when cortisol levels are low.

Question 8

Evaluations to neural and hormonal explanations for aggression

Answer 8

High internal validity:
Studies use highly controlled measuring tools, such as fMRI scanners. Similarly, biological chemicals are carefully measured. These objective methods reduce any forms of potential bias and produce reliable findings.

Biologically reductionist:
The idea that someone’s aggressive behaviour is entirely down to their biological makeup could lead to effective biological interventions to reduce aggression. However, it is likely to be the full explanation for something so complex. Biology may explain emotional triggers but whether a person chooses to or not to act on these impulses depend on other social psychological factors.

Biologically deterministic:
Taking a biologically deterministic approach suggests that someone couldn’t act otherwise. This could have implications within society. For example, judges may use neural or testosterone abnormalities as mitigating factors for violent crime. Likewise, individuals may lose a sense of agency and feel as though they have no power to resist aggressive impulses.

Social sensitivity:
Research into the links between biological factors and aggression could have negative implications for the people used in the studies. For example, if abnormalities in the limbic system are shown to be a predictor of violent behaviour, this could lead to discrimination or suspicion of people with these abnormalities before they have even committed an offence.

Question 9

Outline twin and adoption studies in relation to aggression

Answer 9

Coccaro et al
For aggressive behaviour defined as physical assault, the researchers found concordance rates of 50% for MZ twins and 19% for DZs.

Mednick and Hutchings:
There is limited research into aggression in adoption studies, however, their research found an association between criminality and genetics. When looking into the criminal records of Danish adoptees, 21.4% of those with a criminal record had a biologically criminal father, compared to 10.5% of those with a criminal record who did not.

Question 10

Outline the role of MAOA gene in aggression

Answer 10

MAOA is an enzyme which breaks down neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin. MAOA is regulated by the MAOA gene for which there are several variants of.

The MAOA-L gene has been associated with aggressive behaviour leads to low MAOA activity in areas of the brain and can lead to an excess of serotonin.

Question 11

Outline research in the role of MAOA-L in aggression

Answer 11

Brunner et al studied 28 male members of a large Dutch family who were repeatedly involved in impulsive aggressive behaviours such as rape, attempted murder and physical assault. The researchers found that these men had abnormally low levels of MAOA in their brains and the low activity version of the MAOA gene. This suggests extreme aggression levels could have a genetic origin.

Stuart et al: studied 97 men who, because they had been involved in inflicting intimate partner violence (IPV), were part of a batterer treatment programme. Men with the low activity MAOA gene were found to be the most violent perpetrators of IPV. They engaged in the highest levels of physical and psychological aggression and inflicted the worst injuries on their partners.

Frazetto et al: found an association between higher levels of antisocial aggression and the MAOA-L gene variant in adult males, as expected.
But this was only the case in those who had experienced significant early trauma. Those who had not experienced such childhood trauma did not have particularly high levels of aggression as adults, even if they possessed MAOA-L. This is strong evidence of a gene environment interaction

Question 12

Evaluate the role of MAOA-L in aggression

Answer 12

Contradictory theories:
MAOA-L reduces MAOA enzyme activity, leading to an excess build up of serotonin in the brain. However, previous studies have correlated with aggression with lower serotonin levels. This therefore suggests the role of serotonin is complex.

It is hard to isolate the role of genes from environmental influences. Genes may only create a vulnerability to aggression, when combined with certain environmental influences. Therefore, the genetic explanation of aggression seems not to be a complete one. McDermott et al. showed that participants with MAOA-L behaved aggressively in laboratory-based money allocation games, but only when they were provoked, otherwise, they were no more aggressive than other participants.

Issues of measuring aggression:
Methods of measuring aggression differ between studies, and include self reports, parent and teacher reports and direct observations. Eg: Rhee and Waldman’s meta analysis of 51 twin and adoption studies found that genetic factors had a greater influence on aggression in studies using self reports rather than parent and teacher reports. This makes it harder to draw valid conclusions about the role of genetics in aggression when there is inconsistency with how aggression is being measured.

Genetics can not account for all the variance in aggression. For example, a third of Western men possess the warrior gene, yet not all of these men are aggressive. This therefore indicates there may be social factors at play.

Question 13

Outline ethological explanations for aggression

Answer 13

The ethological explanation proposes that aggression can be the result of an evolved automatic biological response in the brain and suggest that the main function of aggression is adaptive; it helped the species survive and successfully reproduce.

Question 14

Outline ritualistic aggression

Answer 14

Lorenz noted when observing fights between animals of the same species there was little actual physical damage.

Most aggressive encounters consisted mainly of a period of ritualistic signalling eg: baring of teeth/growling. Following this, intra species aggressive confrontations would end with ritual appeasement displays. These indicate acceptance of defeat and inhibit aggressive behaviour in the victor, preventing any damage to the loser. Eg: wolves assuming a submissive position.

This appeasement display would allow a victor to be established without causing the death of the loser. This is adaptive because if every aggressive encounter ended with the death of one of the combatants, that could threaten the existence of the species.

Question 15

Outline the role of fixed action patterns in aggression.

Answer 15

An innate releasing mechanism is thought to be a neural structure and is a response to a specific stimulus within the environment: This process is instinctive and results in a predictable behavioural sequence, known as a fixed action pattern.

FAP’s tend to be:

An unchanging sequence of behaviour

The same for every animal of that species

Unaffected by learning

Cannot be altered before completion (‘ballistic’)

Only occurs in a specific situation

Response to a specific stimulus

Question 16

Outline research into IRMs and FAPS

Answer 16

Tinbergen

Male sticklebacks are highly territorial during the spring mating season, when they also develop a red spot on their underbelly. If another male enters their territory, a sequence of highly stereotyped aggressive behaviours is initiated (FAP).
The sign stimulus that triggers the innate releasing mechanism is the site of the red spot.

Tinbergen presented the male sticklebacks with various models of sticklebacks. He found that when shown the realistic model but with no red underbelly, no FAP was triggered. However, when presented with the model with a red undersides, the sticklebacks began to attack the model. This was in spite of this model being unrealistic.

This evidence suggests male sticklebacks have an IRM for aggression which is triggered by the red underside of other males of the same species. This trigger results in their FAP of aggressive behaviour.

Slackett:

Slackett isolated infant monkeys from their mothers. These monkeys were shown photographs of monkeys displaying either aggressive or non aggressive poses and it was found the infant monkeys only displayed defensive poses towards the aggressive images.

As these monkeys were isolated from infancy they were prevented from learning any behaviours socially. This therefore suggests that monkeys are born with an innate set of behaviours (FAP) which is triggered when shown aggression.

Question 17

Evaluate the ethological explanation for aggression

Answer 17

Research support from Tinbergen and Slackett

Animal studies can seperate biological and socio-cultural processes which would not be ethically possible in human studies. This gives us a greater insight into the biological origins of aggression. However, there is an issue with how generalisable animal studies are to humans. For example, many displays of human aggression are not instinctual but premeditated such as warfare.

Contradictory evidence suggests animal aggression is not always ritualistic. Goodall’s study on chimpanzee behaviour, showed one group attacking another, killing all of the members. This process of systematic and premeditated slaughtering continued despite the victims offering continues signals of appeasement and defencelessness. As these signals did not inhibit the aggressive behaviour of the attacking chimps, this reduces the reliability of the ethological explanation.

Cultural differences: An ethological explanation assumes that behaviour is innate; therefore, it should be uniform across all cultures however research by Nisbett et al found a North-South divide when comparing homicide rates in different parts of the United States. Because this was only true for reactive aggression triggered by arguments, Nisbett concluded that the difference in homicide rates was caused by a ‘culture of honour’, in other words the response to impulsive aggression was a learned social norm. Therefore, these cultural variations in aggression find issues that the ethological explanation cannot account for.

Question 18

Outline evolutionary explanations for sexual jealousy

Answer 18

Potential evolutionary reasons behind aggression can include defeating sexual rivals, attaining and maintaining relationships with mates (deterring infidelity), sexual jealousy of rivals, dominance and social status, gaining resources and defending resources, the self, and mates.

The cost of cuckoldry includes wasting resources on the child of another man, and consequently wasting reproductive opportunities and continuation of genes. Sexual jealousy and subsequent aggression could be seen as an attempt to ensure faithfulness and certainty that they are investing resources into their own children.

To minimise this risk, mate retention strategies were developed in order to deter the mate from infidelity.

Question 19

Outline research into mate retention strategies

Answer 19

Wilson and Daly identified two forms of mate retention strategies:

Direct Guarding: male vigilance over partner’s behaviour.

Negative inducements: such as threats for infidelity.

Margo Wilson et al. found that women who reported male retention strategies in their partners were twice as likely to have suffered physical violence at the hands of their partners.

Question 20

Outline research into IPV

Answer 20

Shackleford studied IPV within heterosexual couples through the use of questionnaires.

The men completed the Mate Retention Inventory, which assessed mate retention behaviours in various categories (such as direct guiding).
The women completed the Spouse Influence Report, which measured the extent of their partner’s violence in their relationship.

There was a strong positive correlation between men’s reports of their mate retention behaviours and women’s reports of their partners’ physical violence. Moreover, these retention behaviours were said to be reliable predictors of the husbands using violence against their wives.

Question 21

Outline the evolutionary explanation for bullying

Answer 21

Evolutionary explanations can see bullying as being adaptive and enhancing a species ability to survive; by asserting dominance and violence over others, one’s own health is prioritised and therefore they have more reproductive opportunities.

Question 22

Outline research into bullying

Answer 22

Volk outlines how when a male bullies, they assert dominance, strength and show an ability to defend themselves from others. These traits would enhance their chances of survival and therefore deemed attractive to those of the opposite sex.

Question 23

Evaluate the evolutionary explanation for aggression

Answer 23

Lots of research support into central concepts of the evolutionary explanation:
Many studies provide the same evidence into a correlation between mate retention strategies and violence. Shackleford’s significant findings support the notion that negative inducements and direct guarding which stem from sexual jealousy can result in subsequent aggression. This indicates a clear link between the greater risk of infidelity and cuckoldry, and aggression. This supports predictions derived from the evolutionary explanation concerning the adaptive value of aggression.

Real life applications:
The evolutionary approach acknowledges that bullies bully because they stand to gain advantages for themselves. Therefore, the cost of bullying should be increased as well as the increase in rewards of pro-social alternatives. One method could be to encourage bullies to compete aggressively but fairly in sporting activities. This would give them the opportunity to display prowess, strength but through a better avenue.

Extensive correlations found between mate retention strategies and aggression provides valuable information and insights into the potential predictive signs of future violence. Therefore, people can be aware of these indicators and potentially avoid situations of domestic abuse.

Can account for gender differences:
It is widely accepted that violence and aggression is seen more commonly within males; the evolutionary explanation can account for this. Campbell argues for women with offspring a more adaptive strategy for them is to use verbal aggression as a means of retaining a partner who provides resources and to avoid becoming involved in life threatening physical aggression. This is as being violent could put their own survival and that of their child’s at risk.

Limited explanation:
The evolutionary explanation predicts aggression is present in all cultures because it is used everywhere to increase survival chances through greater reproductive success. The Kung San people of the Kalahari discourage aggression and those who use it lose status and reputation. The Yanomamo of Venezuela use aggression to gain status in their structured society. These different experiences and attitudes towards aggression suggests that this behaviour is not universal, contrary to evolutionary theory.

Methodological issues:
It is extremely difficult to test hypotheses about the evolution of behaviours to solve problems of adaptation in our past, so research is correlational. But even a very strong correlation does not allow us to conclude that evolutionary related factors cause aggression. This makes it very difficult to establish the validity of the evolutionary explanation.

Question 24

Outline frustration as a social psychological explanation for aggression

Answer 24

Dollard and Miller put forward the FAH (frustration aggressive hypothesis) as an explanation for aggression. This suggests that when we are prevented from completing a goal, we become frustrated, aggressive behaviour is how this frustration is released.

Aggression is cathartic release of built-up aggression. Moreover, the FAH states that aggression is often displaced onto an innocent target. This can be because the original source is unavailable or we risk being punished by directing our anger towards them

Question 25

Outline research support into the FAH

Answer 25

Green:

Male participants completed a puzzle under one of three conditions. An unattainable time frame with an interfering confederate, an impossible puzzle or they completed it whilst a confederate continually insulted their intelligence.

The second part of the experiment allowed participants to shock a confederate if they gave an incorrect answer to a question. In comparison to the control group, who were able to complete the puzzle without interference, all experimental groups gave more frequent and more intense electrical shocks.

This supports the FAH as it suggests that the control group were less inclined to show aggressive behaviour as they were not prevented from completing the goal of puzzle and therefore had no frustration to relieve via giving electrical shocks.

Harris:

Investigated the proximity to goal aspect of the FAH, by looking into the variations in aggression when the participant was closer to their goal before being hindered.

They did this by having confederates push in front of someone in a queue either near the rear or front of the line. When the confederate turned around to assess the aggression (measured in the form of facial expression or tone they spoke in) it was found those who were closer to the front of the line were significantly more aggressive than those at the back.

This suggests that the closer in proximity and individual is to their goal at the point of prevention, the more frustrated they will be and in turn, the more aggressive.

Question 26

Evaluate the FAH as a social psychological explanation for aggression

Answer 26

Research support from Green and Harris.

Doesn’t account for individual differences. Not everyone expresses frustration through aggressive means. For example, even when frustrated, a pacifist is unlikely to resort to aggressive means. Therefore an ideographic approach may be more meaningful when applied to the FAH.

Certain cues are needed to exhibit aggression such as the presence of weapons.

Berkowitz offers an alternative explanation. Negative effect theory suggests aggression can be a result of any negative emotion, not just aggression, and frustration can result in other responses.

It explains reactive aggression, which is a response to a threat or provocation, but does not explain pro-active, instrumental (calculated) aggression, where aggression is used as a means to an end.

Conflicting views on aggression being cathartic. Bushman found participants who vented their anger by repeatedly hitting a punching bag became increasingly more aggressive. If aggression was cathartic we would expect to see an inhibition in this violence.

Question 27

Outline research into SLT as a social psychological explanation for aggression

Answer 27

Bandura showed children an adult being aggressive towards a Bobo doll. They were then prevented from playing with toys, to create frustration and a readiness for aggression. When left alone in a room with the Bobo doll, the children copied the aggressive acts they had seen, including the language.

In a control group, which did not observe aggressive behaviour, almost no aggression was shown towards the doll.

Imitation of observed aggression was showed to be more likely when the child had watched a model of the same gender.

+ objective: prior to the experiment the children’s aggression was measured. High inter-rater reliability.
+ supports the notion of identification.
- only showed short term effects of observing an aggressive model.

Question 28

Outline SLT as a social psychological explanation for aggression

Answer 28

Social learning theory suggests behaviours are learnt through observation and imitation. A viewer is more likely to imitate aggressive behaviour if they identify with the model they view displaying it. Moreover, if the model is rewarded for being aggressive or gains something out of it, the observer will be vicariously reinforced and thus, more compelled to exhibit the same behaviour.

The mediational processes occur between observation and imitation.

An individual is more likely to be aggressive if they have high self efficacy. Linked to the idea of motivation, this is an individual’s confidence that performing an action will lead to a desired reward. This is strengthened each time the aggressive action leads to a positive outcome, as the person gets more confident that they can use aggression successfully.

Question 29

Evaluate SLT as a social psychological explanation for aggression

Answer 29

Doesn’t account for all forms of aggression. SLT can explain reactive aggression, when aggression is used instrumentally as a mean to an ends. Children with high self efficacy are confident their aggressive behaviour will bring about rewards and therefore use aggression instrumentally to achieve their goals. However, reactive aggression is not premediated or planned, and occurs instantly in response to a trigger. This suggests some aggressive actions may be instinctual, and so are not learned, as the theory would predict.

Support for mediational processes: Poulin and Boivin found that aggressive boys were more likely to form friendships with other aggressive boys. These relationships are training grounds for antisocial behaviour. They were also found to be long lasting and reinforce aggression; as they were used to gain resources of aggression and reinforcement from the approval of others. This provides support for the influence of reinforcement, observation and rewards, in causing aggression

Williams investigated the effects on children’s playground behaviour before and after the introduction of TV in a rural town in Canada. She found both an increase in verbal and physical aggression, which was suggested to be a result of imitating symbolic models on the TV.

Real life applications. SLT can be used to perform interventions on children who may be at risk of exposure to aggressive models, hopefully preventing future imitation of aggression.

Question 30

Outline deindividuation as a social psychological explanation for aggression.

Answer 30

In a deindividuated state, we lose our senses of both identity and responsibility for our behaviour, and we have a greater disregard for norms.. Responsibility becomes shared throughout the crowd, so we experience less personal guilt at harmful aggression directed at others. Le Bon argued that being in a crowd enabled people to behave in ways they usually would not.

Festinger argues as a result of this loss of identity we feel less in control of our own actions and so go along with the aggressive behaviour of the surrounding group.

Being in a large crowd makes us less identifiable, this feeling of anonymity reduces feelings of responsibility and lowers inhibitions of guilt for committing aggressive acts.

Zimbardo distinguishes between an individuated state, where our behaviour is rational and normative and a deindividuated state where our behaviour is irrational, anti-normative and impulsive. When in a deindividuated state we stop monitoring our own behaviour.

Deindividuation results in a reduction of public and private self awareness. We become one amongst many, this anonymity gives others less opportunities to judge our behaviour negatively. Similarly, when we are part of a group our focus turns outwards, leaving less room to self evaluate and reflect on our own values and personal thoughts on the behaviour we are exhibiting.

Question 31

Outline research into deindividuation

Answer 31

Denier: natural experiment on Halloween.

On the night of Halloween, concealed raters observed over 1000 trick or treaters when given the opportunity to steal sweets and money. They categorised the children into either anonymous/non-anonymous and whether they were alone of in a group. Those children who were in a group and anonymous were the group who stole the most at 57%, compared to 21% in the group that were identifiable. This research demonstrates that when anonymous and in a group, children are more likely to behave in a socially deviant way, therefore supporting deindividuation theory as a social psychological theory of aggression.

Gergan et al:

Participants were placed in a completely darkened room for one hour, and told to do just whatever they wanted to, with no rules to stop them. It was impossible for the participants to identify one another, and they were given a guarantee that they would never encounter each other again. In a repeat of the study, the participants were told they would come face-to-face with each other after the hour of darkness.

The first condition resulted in affectionate, intimate behaviour between participants, a result not seen in the repeat. This suggests anonymity does result in lowered inhibitions in behaviour, but shows it does not always lead to aggressive behaviour.

Question 32

Evaluate deindividuation as a social psychological explanation for aggression

Answer 32

Real life applications: the idea of deindividuation suggests that factors such as anonymity can increase the likelihood of people exhibiting aggressive behaviour as they are less identifiable and so feel less responsible for their actions. This information can be used to design settings which prevent anonymity such as city planners putting CCTV in more places and designing streets to be well lit.

Gender bias: Cannavale found that male and female groups responded differently under deindividuation conditions, reflecting a gender bias in the theory. An increase in aggression was obtained only in the all-male groups. Evidence indicated that males may be more prone to disinhibition of aggressive behaviour when deindividuated than females.

Doesn’t explain the variation in aggression amongst groups. Sports such as football, have had a long history of aggression and violence both on the pitch and from fans. Yet, events such as cricket or rugby which attract the same sized crowds have not experienced this anti-social behaviour to the same extent. This suggests there are other contributing factors eg: cultural factors internalised through the process of social learning.

Question 33

Outline institutionalised aggression

Answer 33

When aggression becomes the norm of an institution, such as prisons.

Dispositional explanation:
The internal characteristics of prisoners is what results in the aggressive prison environment, rather than the contextual setting itself.

Irwin and Cressey’s importation model suggests that prison inmates bring their own traits and normative systems developed outside of the prison inside. Gang membership is often prevalent within prisons, as prisoners bring in their learnt street culture to form alliances.

Aggression is used instrumentally by existing inmates as a means of acquiring status and power as well as access to resources. Other personal factors can also bring aggression into the prison, such as withdrawal from alcohol.

Situational explanation:
The aggressive environment in prisons is external to the inmates characteristics and is a result of the prison setting. Overcrowding, excessive noise, lack of facilities and prison governance/regime are all factors which can result in inmates resorting to aggression to relieve their frustrations.

Personal qualities of staff can also shape the prison environment. Large numbers of poorly trained staff means aggressive disputes are less likely to be diffused.

Clemmer’s deprivation model outlines how as a result of prisoners being deprived of freedom, privacy and autonomy, this creates a stressful environment where inmates cope by resorting to aggressive means. Moreover, deprivation from resources increases competition amongst prisoners leading to subsequent aggression.

Question 34

Outline research into the dispositional explanation

Answer 34

DeLisi et al found from a sample of over 2000 male offenders, family background/upbringing was a strong influence on dispositional aggression and rule-breaking within the prison.

A previous history of living in care, poverty and a history of using violence against a family member were all associated with later aggression in prisons.

DeLisi et al studied over 800 juvenile delinquents and found that those with severely negative dispositional factors such as a history of abuse, drug use and childhood trauma were more likely to engage in suicidal activity, sexual misconduct and violent behaviour, in contrast to a control group of inmates with fewer negative dispositional factors.

Alternative explanation: Dilulio’s administrative control model (ACM) states that poorly managed prisons are much more likely to experience the most serious forms of inmate violence. The ACM suggests that poor managment is more influencial when determining aggression than internal characteristics.

Question 35

Outline research into the situational explanation

Answer 35

Bierie had a stratified sample of staff from over 100 US prisons complete a questionnaire related to the conditions of their prison. These responses were then correlated with prison records of violence. It was found that the prisons which had the poorest conditions (excessive noise, overpopulation, poor hygiene) had the most reports of inmate violence.

Contradictory explanation: Hensley et al found when studying two prisons in Mississippi which allowed conjugal visits, there was no link between involvement in these visits and a subsequent reduction is aggression.

Question 36

Evaluate institutional aggression

Answer 36

Research into the institutional explanation could have implications on the lives of prisoners, making it socially sensitive research. Finding that aggression comes from prison environments may result in increased funding to improve facilities. However, finding aggression is a result of dispositional factors may be used as a justification for making budget cuts within prisons.

In Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison experiment, all participants went under psychological screening prior to the experiment to prevent any dispositional factors which could lead to aggression, confounding the results of the study. The experiment quickly escalated, with riots breaking out amongst prisoners and guards displaying destructive authority. This suggests it was the situational power of the simulated prison environment causing these results.

Interactionalist approach: prisoners who due to dispositional factors are more prone to aggression, are more likely to be aggressive when put in a stressful and threatening environment.

Question 37

Outline how media influences aggression

Answer 37

Frequent exposure to violent media can make people desensitised and disinhibited to its effects. Similarly, making an individual cognitively primed to be aggressive.

Desensitisation: Normally when we are exposed to violent actions we experience physiological reactions associated with the sympathetic nervous system. Frequent exposure to violence makes us become habituated to these effects and in turn diminishes their impact and reduces any typical anxiety or physiological arousal. Moreover, frequent violent media watching can change are psychological reactions. Aggression is believed to be a reasonable way of resolving conflicts, less empathy is also felt towards victims.

Disinhibition: Typically the anti-social and harmful view of aggression learnt through socialisation inhibits us from being aggressive. These normal restraints are loosened after frequent exposure to violent media. This is particularly the case when aggression is portrayed as just and results in violence being normalised and viewed as a reasonable resort to resolving interpersonal conflicts.

Cognitive priming: frequently watching violent media can result in ready made scripts being constructed on how we expect aggressive encounters to be carried out. This means we are then cognitively primed and so when exposed to cues in the real world is a similar context, we are prone to be aggressive.

Question 38

Outline research into desensitisation

Answer 38

Weisz and Earls
Had participants watch either “straw dogs” a film with a graphic rape scene, or a non-violent film prior to watching a rape trial and giving their opinions on it.

Compared with those who watched a non sexually violent film, male viewers of ‘straw dogs’ showed greater acceptance of rape myths and sexual aggression. They also expressed less sympathy towards the rape victim in the trial, they were less likely to find the defendant guilty.

Question 39

Outline research into disinhibition

Answer 39

Berkowitz et al found that compared to a control group, participants who saw a film depicting violence as a vengeance gave longer and more intense electric shocks to a confederate. This suggests that the portrayal of aggression as being justified, normalises its uses and leads to aggressive behaviour being viewed as socially acceptable.

This supports the idea that the removal of social constraints can result in aggressive behaviour, at least in the case of justified aggression.

Question 40

Outline research into cognitive priming

Answer 40

Fischer et al had participants either listened to derogatory song lyrics about women or neutral ones. Those who listened to the former were shown to be more likely to say misogynistic things and behave more aggressively towards a female confederate in comparison to the control group.

Question 41

Outline the effects of media influences on aggression

Answer 41

Frequently watching aggression in the media has been suggested to result in subsequent aggressive behaviour.

Social learning theory suggests identification with a violent but attractive hero in the media, increases the likelihood of imitation. Similarly, a viewer can be vicariously learn that using aggression can solve problems and lead to rewards. Finally, moral decision processes can be altered through violent media. In particular when aggression is portrayed as just, an individual may begin to view aggression as a reasonable response when we feel we’ve been wronged.

The effects of computer games has been specifically looked into, in regards to its impact on aggression. Unlike passive media watching, computer games require an individual to actively engage in violence. In particular, games in which aggression is the only way of progressing in the game, an individual is positively reinforced that violence will earn them credits and rewards.

Alternative views may see violent video games as an outlet for aggressive feelings, and therefore can be used as a cathartic exercise, and reduce the likelihood of aggressive behaviour.

Question 42

Outline research into the effects of media influences on aggression

Answer 42

Bartholow and Anderson had students carry out the TRCTT, which consisted of them delivering blasts of white noise to punish a non-existent opponent. They found that participants who had played 10 minutes of a violent computer game chose to give significantly higher noise levels than those students who played a non-violent tennis game.

DeLisi et al found that when correlating over 200 juvenile offenders histories of violence with their violent video game habits, aggressive behaviour was significantly correlated with how often an offender played violent video games, as well as their enjoyment of them.

Robertson et al conducted a longitudinal study into the link between childhood TV watching habits and later adulthood aggression. Participants TV habits were assessed in regular intervals up to the age of 26.

They found that time spent watching TV was a reliable predictor of aggressive behaviour in adulthood, measured in terms of convictions for aggressive and violent crimes. Those who watched the most TV were also more likely to be diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder and to have aggressive personality traits. Interestingly, the duration of TV watched was a more significant factor than the particular content watched.

Question 43

Evaluate research into the media influences on aggression

Answer 43

Applications: possible links found between violent media and aggressive behaviour can be used to inform policy around regulations to do with the age ratings of certain games.

Research can lack ecological validity: measures of aggression in lab situations are often artificial and unrealistic, such as the TCRTT which measures how much loud noise is selected. This is as realistic forms of aggression would be unethical to carry out. In addition, the participant is able to act aggressively without fear of retaliation or punishment, a scenario not common in everyday life.

Causation cannot be drawn from correlational studies.