Issues And Debates Flashcards
What is free will?
• Free will suggests as human beings we are
essentially self-determining and free to choose our thoughts and actions
Which approach advocates free will?
Humanistic
What is determinism?
Determinism is the view that an individual’s
behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces rather than an individual’s will to do something
What is hard determinism also referred to as?
Fatalism
What is hard determinism?
Implies that free will is not possible
• Suggests all human behaviour has a cause and in principle it should be possible to identify and describe these causes
Assumes everything we think and do is dictated
by internal or external forces we cannot control
• For some this position is to extreme
Who proposed soft determinism?
William James (1890)
What is soft determinism?
• Acknowledges that all human action has a cause, but there’s some room for manoeuvre
• People have conscious, mental control over the way they behave
• We have the freedom to make rational conscious choices in everyday situations
What is biological determinism?
The biological approach emphasises the role of biological determinism in behaviour
• There is no doubt that many of our physiological and neurological
processes are not under our conscious control (e.g. influence of the
autonomic nervous system during periods of stress)
• Lots of behaviours and characteristics (e.g. mental disorders) are thought
to have a genetic basis
• Research has demonstrated the effect of hormones (e.g. The role of
testosterone in aggressive behaviour)
What is environmental determinism?
• Our experience of ‘choice’ is merely the sum total of reinforcement contingencies that have acted upon us throughout our lives
• Although we might think we are acting independently, our behaviour has been shaped by environmental events, as well as
agents of socialisation – parents, teachers, institutions etc
• Behaviour is caused by features of the environment e.g. systems of
reward and punishment that we cannot control
What is psychic determinism?
• Freud, like Skinner, agreed that free will is an ‘illusion’
but placed much more emphasis on the influence of
drives and instincts than the behaviourists
• Sees human behaviour as determined and directed by
unconscious conflicts that we cannot control
• There is no such thing as an accident, according to Freud
• Even something as seemingly random and innocuous as a
‘slip of the tongue’ can be explained by the underlying
unconscious
How is determinism consistent with the aims of science?
Determinism is all about causation – behaviour is caused (determined) by something not within the individual’s control
Supports cause and effect
What are the strengths of determinism? / against free will?
1) Determinism is consistent with the aims
of science.
The notion that human behaviour is
orderly and obeys laws places psychology
on equal footing with other more
established sciences.
2) Advances in mental health.
The prediction and control of human
behaviour has led to the development of
treatments, therapies and behavioural
interventions that have benefited many
e.g. drug treatments to control and
manage schizophrenia
• The experience of mental disorders like
schizophrenia where sufferers experience
a total loss of control over their thoughts
and behaviour casts doubt on the
concept of free will (no-one would
‘choose’ to have schizophrenia)
• Therefore in terms of mental illness,
behaviour would appear to be
determined.
3) supporting research.
Neurological studies of decision making
have revealed evidence against free will
• Libet (1985) and Chun Siong Soon et al
(2008) have demonstrated that the brain
activity that determines the outcome of
simple choices may predate our
knowledge of having made such a choice
• The researchers found that the activity
related to whether to press a button with
the left or right hand occurs in the brain
up to ten seconds before participants
report being consciously aware of making
such a decision
• This shows that even our most basic
experiences of free will are decided and
determined by our brain before we
become aware of them.
Describe the interactionist position in the free-will determinism debate?
Typically, an interactionist position may
provide us with the best compromise in the
free will-determinism debate
• Those approaches in psychology that have a cognitive element, such as Social Learning
Theory, are those which tend to adopt a
‘soft determinism’ position.
What are the strengths of free will? / against determinism?
1)Everyday experience ‘gives the
impression’ that we are constantly
exercising free will through the choices
we make on any given day – this gives
face validity to the concept of free will –
it makes cognitive sense.
• Research also suggests that people who
have an internal locus of control,
believing that they have a high degree of
influence over events and their own
behaviour, tend to be more mentally
healthy.
2)Roberts et al (2000) found that
adolescents with a strong belief in
fatalism – that their lives were ‘decided’
by events outside of their control – were
at significantly greater risk of developing
depression.
• This suggests that, even if we do not
have free will, the fact that we think we
do may have a positive impact on mind
and behaviour.
3)Legal System
The hard determinist stance that
individual choice is not the cause of
behaviour is not consistent with the way
in which our legal system operates.
• In a court of law, offenders are held
morally accountable for their actions
• Determinism is unfalsifiable. It is based
on the idea that causes of behaviour will
always exist, even though they may not
have been found – this is impossible to
prove wrong.
• This suggests that the determinist
approach to human behaviour may not
be as scientific as it first appears.
What is the idiographic approach?
Attempts to describe the nature of the individual
• People are studied as unique entities, each with
their own subjective experiences, motivations and
values
• May be no attempt to compare these to a larger
group, standard or norm
• Generally associated with those methods in
psychology that produce qualitative data e.g. case
studies, unstructured interviews and other selfreport measured.
• These methods reflect one of the central aims of
idiographic research: to describe the richness of
human experience and gain insight into the person’s
unique way of viewing the world
What approach to psych is a good example of the idiographic approach?
humanistic
Why is the humanistic approach a good example of the idiographic approach?
Rogers and Maslow were interested only in
documenting the conscious experience of the
individual or ‘self’
• They described themselves as ‘anti-scientific’
• Humanistic psychologists were more concerned with
investigating unique experience ‘on its own merits’
than producing general laws of behaviour
Why may the psychodynamic approach be labelled as idiographic?
• The psychodynamic approach is often labelled
‘idiographic’ because of Freud’s use of the case study
method when detailing the lives of his patients
• However, Freud also assumed he had identified
universal laws of behaviour and personality
development (which is more like the nomothetic
approach)
What is the nomothetic approach?
• The main aim is to produce general laws of human
behaviour
• They provide a ‘benchmark’ against which people can be
compared, classified and measured
• On the basis of this, future behaviour can be predicted
and/or controlled
• This approach is most closely aligned with those methods
that would be regarded as ‘scientific’ within psychology
such as experiments
• Such methods involve the study of large numbers of people
in order to establish ways in which people are similar (and
inform us how people are different from one another)
Why is the cognitive approach nomothetic?
Cognitive psychologists have been able to infer the structure and
processes of human memory by measuring the performance of large
samples of people in laboratory tests
Why is the behaviourist approach nomothetic?
Skinner and the behaviourists studied the responses of
hundreds of rats, cats, pigeons etc. in order to develop the laws of
learning
why is the biological approach nomothetic?
Biological psychologists have conducted brain scans on countless
human brains to make generalisations about localisation of function
What are the strengths for the idiographic approach?/ against the nomothetic approach
1)Single cases may generate a hypothesis for further study .
With its in-depth qualitative methods of
investigation, provides a complete and
global account of the individual
• This may complement the nomothetic
approach by shedding further light on
general laws or indeed by challenging
such laws
• A single case may generate hypotheses
for further study (e.g. the case of HM)
• In the case of brain damaged individuals
(like HM), findings may reveal important
insights about normal functioning which
may contribute to our overall
understanding.
2) The subjective experience is ignored in the nomothetic approach.
The preoccupation within the nomothetic
approach on general laws, prediction and
control has been accused of ‘losing the
whole person’ within psychology.
• Knowing that there is a 1% lifetime risk of
developing schizophrenia tells us little
about what life is like for someone who is
suffering from the disorder.
• In lab studies involving tests of memory
for example, participants are treated as a
series of scores rather than individual
people. Their subjective experience of
the situation is ignored
• In its search for generalities, the
nomothetic approach may sometimes
overlook the richness of human
experience.
Describe the argument that sates the ideographic and nomothetic approach can be complementary rather than contradictory.
Rather than seeing idiographic and nomothetic
approaches as mutually exclusive ‘either/or’
alternatives, it is possible to consider the same
issue or topic from both perspectives,
depending on the nature of the research
question
The goal of modern psychology is to provide
rich, detailed descriptions of human behaviour
as well as the explanation of such behaviour
within the framework of general laws
What are the strengths for the nomothetic approach? /against the ideographic approach?
1) scientific methods
• The processes involved in nomothetic
research tend to be more scientific,
mirroring those employed within the
natural sciences – testing under
standardised conditions, using data sets
that provide group averages, statistical
analysis, prediction and control e.g. in the
field of IQ testing
• Such processes have enabled
psychologists to establish norms of
‘typical’ behavior (e.g. average IQ of 100)
arguably giving the discipline of
psychology greater scientific credibility
2) meaningful explanations cannot be made without further examples in the idiographic approach.
Supporters of the idiographic approach
must recognize the narrow and
restricted nature of their work
• One of the criticisms levelled at Freud is
that many of his key concepts like the
Oedipus Complex, were largely
developed from the detailed study of a
single case (Little Hans)
• Meaningful generalisations cannot be
made without further examples
• There is no adequate baseline with
which to compare behavior
• Methods associated with the idiographic
approach e.g. case studies, tend to be
the least scientific – conclusions often
rely on the subjective interpretation of
the researcher and are therefore open
to bias.
What is reductionism?
The belief that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into smaller
constituent parts
• An explanation is reductionist when a single explanation or cause is suggested
What is holism?
• An argument or theory which proposes that it only makes sense to study an indivisible
system rather than its constituent parts.
It’s the view that any attempts to break up behaviour and experience is inappropriate as
these can only be understood by analysing the person or behaviour as a whole.
which approach is strongly holistic?
Humanistic
What is biological reductionism?
A form of reductionism which attempts
to explain behaviour using biological
systems.
• This could be genetics, physiology of
the body and brain, or biochemistry
• It is called biological reductionism
because in terms of the levels of
explanation, it is as reductionism as
psychology goes.
They do not take into account the
higher levels of explanation such as
learned associations and the influence
of other people
What is environmental reductionism?
It simplifies a behaviour to a stimulus-response action
• This level of explanation is advocated by behaviourist theorists.
• classical conditioning is one such example
What are the levels of explanation in the holism reductionism debate?
The notion of ‘levels of explanation’ suggests that there are
different ways of viewing the same behaviour – some more
reductionist than others
• Explanations vary from those at a lower or fundamental level
focusing on basic components or units to those at a higher more
holistic multivariable level.
• All these are attempts to explain the behaviour, but at differing
levels.
• Some would have more research evidence to support their
suggestion than others
• No one explanation in isolation can be taken as correct, and
therefore several explanations at several levels would be more
appropriate
What are the strengths of reductionism? /against holism?
• A reductionist approach often forms the basis of scientific research
• In order to create operationalised variables it is necessary to break target behaviours down into constituent parts
• This makes it possible to conduct experiments or record
observations (behavioural categories) in a way that is meaningful and reliable
• The behaviourist approach was able to demonstrate how complex learning could be broken down to simple stimulusresponse links within the lab
• This gives psychology greater credibility, placing it on equal terms with the natural sciences lower down in the reductionist hierarchy
Holistic explanations in psychology tend not to lend themselves to rigorous scientific testing and can become vague and speculative as they become more complex
• E.g. humanistic psychology, which takes a holistic approach to behaviour, tends to be criticised for its lack of scientific evidence, and is instead seen by many as a rather loose set of concepts
• Higher level explanations that combine many different perspectives present researchers with a practical dilemma: if
we accept that there are many factors that contribute to say, depression, it becomes difficult to establish which is most
influential, and which one to use, for example, as a basis for therapy
• This suggests when it comes to finding solutions for real world problems, lower level explanations may be more
appropriate.
What are the strengths of holism? / against reductionism?
Often there are aspects of social behaviour that only emerge within a group context and cannot be understood at the level of the individual group members
• E.g. the effects of conformity to social roles and the deindividuation of the prisoners and guards in the Stanford prison experiment could not be understood by studying the participants as individuals. It was the interaction between people and the behaviour of the group that was important.
• This shows that holistic explanations provide a more complete
and global understanding of behaviour than reductionist approaches
Reductionist approaches have been accused of oversimplifying complex phenomena leading to a loss of validity.
• E.g. biological explanations are often criticised for being too simplistic and therefore incomplete
• Whilst environmental explanations can account for a number of behaviours it is likely that many different levels are needed in the explanation, with a learned association being only one of them
• Explanations that operate at the level of the gene, neurotransmitter or neuron do not include an analysis of the social context within which behaviour occurs – and this is where the behaviour in question may derive its meaning. This means that reductionist explanations can only ever form
part of an explanation.
What is the nature debate?
• Early nativists such as Descartes (1596 – 1650) argued that human
characteristics and even some aspects of knowledge are innate –
the result of heredity.
What is heredity?
Heredity is the genetic transmission of mental and physical
characteristics from one generation to another.
• The heritability coefficient is used to assess heredity. It is a
numerical figure ranging from 0 to 1.0 which indicates the extent
to which a characteristic has a genetic basis (a value of 1 means it
is entirely genetically determined)
What is nurture in the nature nurture debate?
• The environment is any nfluence on human behaviour that is nongenetic
What is the relative importance of heredity and environment?
• In a practical sense, the nature-nurture question is impossible to answer as environmental influences in a child’s life begin as soon as it is born (and
perhaps even earlier)
• Nature and nurture are so closely intertwined that practically and theoretically, it makes little sense to separate the two
• E.g. in twin studies it is often very difficult to tell whether high concordance rates are more the result of shared genetics or shared upbringing
• The focus of the nature-nurture debate has changed in recent years. Psychologists are now more likely to ask what the relative contribution of
each influence is in terms of what we think and what we do
What is the diathesis-stress model in the nature nurture debate?
• In psychopathology, many psychologists argue
that both a genetic predisposition and an
appropriate environmental trigger are required for
a psychological disorder to develop (this is set out
in the diathesis-stress model).
• The diathesis is the biological vulnerability such as
being born with a gene that predisposes you to
develop a disorder. However, the disorder will only
develop if there is an environmental ‘stressor’ to
trigger it
What evidence supports the diathesis-stress model?
Finnish Adoption Study
compared 155 adopted children whose biological
mothers had schizophrenia, with a matched group
of children with no family history of schizophrenia.
• The researchers also assessed the quality of
parenting through questionnaires and interviews.
• They found that the group with schizophrenic
mothers had a 10% rate of schizophrenia, but they
also discovered that all of the reported cases of
schizophrenia occurred in families rated as
‘disturbed’.
• When the family environment was rated as
‘healthy’, even in the high-risk sample (mother with
Schizophrenia), the occurrence of schizophrenia
was well below the general population rates.
• However, the environment was not the sole cause,
as the low-risk children from ‘disturbed’ families did
not develop Schizophrenia – so the environment
alone was not enough to trigger the disorder.
• This research provides strong evidence that
schizophrenia is best explained by looking at an
interaction between genetic inheritance and
environmental triggers, in this case, family
environment
What are epigenetics in the nature nurture debate?
This refers to a change in our genetic activity without changing our genetic code
• It is a process that happens throughout life and is caused by interaction with the environment
• Aspects of our lifestyle, and the events we encounter – from smoking and diet to pollution and war – leave
epigenetics ‘marks’ on our DNA.
• These marks – like highlighted text, or bookmarks - tell our bodies which genes to ignore and which to
use, and in turn, may go on and influence the genetic codes of our children, as well as their children
• Epigenetics therefore introduces a third element into the nature-nurture debate; the life experience of
previous generations
Describe the study into epigenetics.
**Dias and Ressler (2014) ** gave male lab mice electric shocks every time they were exposed to the smell of
acetophenone (a chemical used in perfume)
• As predicted by behaviourists, the mice showed a fear reaction as soon as the scent was presented.
• Surprisingly, the rats’ children also feared the smell – even though they had no been exposed to
acetophenone before or received any shocks.
• So did their grandchildren!
How does neural plasticity show how nature and nurture interact?
• The brain can reorganise itself
by forming new neural
connections throughout life.
• Neuroplasticity is a term which
describes the changes in the
structure of the brain (nature),
as a result of life experience
(nurture).
• For example, Maguire et al.
(2000) investigated the
hippocampusus volume of
London taxi drivers’ brains.
• She found that this region of the
brain was larger in taxi drivers
in comparison to non-taxi
drivers.
• Consequently, Maguire
concluded that driving a taxi
(nurture) actually had an effect
on the size of the
hippocampusus (nature)
How does PKU support the interactionist approach in the nature nurture debate?
PKU is caused by the inheritance of two recessive genes, one from each
parent.
People with PKU are unable to break down the amino acid phenylalanine
which builds up in the blood and brain causing mental retardation.
However, if the child is diagnosed early, they are placed on a low protein
diet for the first 12 years, which helps to avert this potentially lifelong
disorder.
Therefore, the disorder PKU (nature) is not expressed, because of an
altered environment (low protein diet – nurture)
What supports the interactionist approach in the nature suture debate?
Diathesis-stress model
Epigenetics
Neural plasticity
PKU
What is nativism in the nature nurture debate?
Nativists suggest that ‘anatomy is destiny’ in that our inherited genetic make-up determines our characteristics and behaviour, whilst the environment has little input (this links to biological
determinism)
• This extreme determinist stance has led to controversy such as that which attempted to link race, genetics and intelligence
What is empiricism in the nature nature debate?
empiricists would suggest that any behaviour can be changed by altering environmental conditions (this links to environmental determinism)
• Behaviour shaping (a behaviourist concept) has had practical application in therapy. Desirable behaviours are selectively reinforced, and undesirable behaviours are punished or
ignored. In extreme terms this may lead one to advocate a model of society that controls and manipulates its citizens using these techniques
What is the issue of shared and unshared environments in the nature nurture debate?
• Research attempting to ‘tease out’ the influence of the environment is complicated by the fact that even siblings raised within the same family may not have experienced exactly the
same upbringing
• The idea of shared and unshared environments suggest that individual differences mean that siblings may experience life events differently. E.g. age and/or temperament would
mean that a life event such as parental divorce would have a different meaning to each sibling.
• This would explain the finding that even MZ twins reared together do not show perfect concordance rates, which supports the view that heredity and the environment cannot be meaningfully separated
What is constructivism in the nature nurture debate?
• The notion that genes and environment interact is elaborated by constructivism.
• People create their own ‘nurture’ by actively selecting environments that are appropriate for their ‘nature’
• E.g. a naturally aggressive child is likely to feel more comfortable around children who show similar behaviours and will ‘choose’ their environment accordingly. This environment then affects their development.
• This shows that it is both impossible and illogical to try to separate nature and nurture influences on a child’s behaviour
What are the 3 types of gene-environment interaction that Scarr and McCartney (1983) put forward? (nature nurture)
Passive interaction
Evocative interaction
Active interaction
What is passive interaction? (nature nurture)
• Passive interaction – the parents’ genes influence the way they treat their children (musically gifted parents are likely to play to their children and encourage engagement with music)
What is evocative interaction? Nature nurture debate
Evocative interaction – the child’s genes influence and shape the environment in which they grow up (the musically talented child will be picked for school concerts and given other special opportunities)
What is active interaction? nature nurture debate
• Active interaction – the child creates it’s own environment through the people and experiences it selects (the child itself chooses similar, musically talented friends and seeks out musical experiences)
What is gender bias?
In the context of gender bias, psychological research or theory may
offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience and
behaviour of men and women (usually women)
What is alpha bias in gender bias?
• Alpha bias within psychological research is that which exaggerates or
overestimates differences between the sexes
• Although these differences may occasionally heighten the value of
women, they are more likely to devalue females in relation to their
male counterparts
E.g
• E.g. Sociobiological theory of relationship formation
• This explains human sexual attraction and behaviour through the
principle of ‘survival efficiency’
• It is in the males interest to try to impregnate as many women as
possible to increase the chances of his genes being passed on to the
next generation.
• For the female, the best chance of preserving her genes is to ensure
the healthy survival of the relatively few offspring she is able to
produce in her lifetime.
• The central premise of this theory is that sexual promiscuity in males
is genetically determined whilst females who engage in the same
behaviour are regarded as going against their ‘nature’
• This is an exaggeration of the difference between the sexes (alpha
bias)
What is beta bias in gender bias?
• Research/theories that ignore or minimise differences between men
and women
• This often occurs when female participants are not included as part of
the research process and then it is assumed that research findings
apply equally to both sexes
E.g
• E.g. the flight or fight response
• Early research into fight or flight was based exclusively on male
animals (preferred for research because female hormones fluctuate)
and was assumed to be a universal response to a threatening situation
• More recently Taylor et al (2000) has suggested that female biology
has evolved to inhibit the fight or flight response, shifting attention
towards caring for offspring (tending) and forming defensive networks
with other females (befriending)
What is bias in the gender bias debate?
– When considering human behaviour, bias is a tendency to treat one
individual or group in a different way from others
• Bias may be an inevitable aspect of the research process. This is despite the
arguments psychologists might make to have discovered ‘facts about human
behaviour that are ‘objective’ and ‘value-free’
• It also undermines psychology’s claims to universality
What is universality in the gender bias debate?
Any underlying characteristics of human beings that is capable
of being applied to all, despite differences of experience, upbringing, time or
culture
• Gender bias and culture bias threaten the universality of findings in
psychology
What is androcentricism in the gender bias debate?
• One possible consequence of beta bias is androcentrism -
Male-centred
• If our understanding of what counts as ‘normal’ behaviour is
being drawn from research that involves all-male samples, then
any behaviour that deviates from this standard is likely to be
‘abnormal’, ‘inferior’ or ‘deficient’ by comparison
• At best, this leads to female behaviour being misunderstood,
and at worst pathologised – taken as a sign of psychological
instability or disorder
What are the implications of gender bias?
• Gender-biased research may create
misleading assumptions about female
behaviour, fail to challenge negative
stereotypes and validate discriminatory
practices
• It may provide a scientific ‘justification’
to deny women opportunities within
the workplace or in wider society
• In any domain in which men set the
standard of normalcy, ‘it becomes
normal for women to feel abnormal’
• Gender bias in research is not just a
methodological problem but may have
damaging consequences which affect
the lives and prospects of real women
(e.g. the statistic that females are
around twice as likely to be diagnosed
with depression than men)
What is reflexivity in the gender bias debate?
• Many modern researchers are beginning to recognise
the effect their own values and assumptions have on
the nature of their work.
• Rather than seeing such bias as a problem that may
threaten the objective status of their work, they
embrace it as a crucial and critical aspect of the
research process in general
• Such reflexivity is an important development in
psychology and may lead to greater awareness of the
role of personal biases in shaping research in the future
What is sexism within the research process in the gender bias debate?
• A lack of women appointed at senior research level means that
female concerns may not be reflected in the research questions
asked
• Psychology may therefore be guilty of supporting a form of
institutional sexism that creates bias in theory and research
What is feminists psychology in the gender bias debate?
• Feminist commentators such as Judith Worrell
(1992) have put forward a number of criteria
that should be adhered to in order to avoid
gender bias in research
• Women should be studied within meaningful
real-life contexts and genuinely participate in
research, rather than be the objects of study.
• Diversity within groups of women should be
examined, rather than comparisons made
between women and men
• Finally there should be greater emphasis
placed on collaborative research methods that
collect qualitative, as opposed to numerical
data.
What is culture bias?
A tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena
through the ‘lens’ of one’s own culture
What is enthnocentricism in the culture bias debate?
• Judging other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own
culture
• In its extreme form it is the belief in the superiority of one’s own
culture which may lead to prejudice and discrimination towards other
cultures
What is cultural relativism in the culture bias debate?
• The idea that norms and values, as well as ethics and moral standards
can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and
cultural contexts
• It is argued that psychology has often been guilty of ‘imposed etic’ –
where behaviour within a single culture is studied and then assumed this could be
applied universally
• Being able to recognise this is one way of avoiding culture bias in
research
What is individualism and collectivism in the culture bias debate?
• Often in the past when psychologists have made reference to culture, they have done so within the context of the individualistic-collectivist
distinction
• Individualistic culture is associated with western countries (such as the US) who are thought to value personal freedom and independence.
• Collectivist cultures (such as India and China) are said to place more emphasis on
interdependence and the needs of the group.
• However, critics have suggested in this age of global communication and increased
interconnectedness that such a simplistic
distinction between cultures no longer applies
How are implicit assumptions challenged in the culture bias debate?
• One of the greatest benefits of conducting cross-cultural
research is that it may challenge our typically Western
ways of thinking and viewing the world
• Being able to see that some of the knowledge and
concepts we take for granted are not shared by other
people around the world may promote a greater
sensitivity to individual difference and cultural relativism
in the future
• This not only counters the charge of ‘scientific racism’
that has been made against some psychological theories
in the past but also means that the conclusions
psychologists draw are likely to have more validity if they
include recognition of the role of culture in bringing
them about
What is the operationalisation of variables in the culture bias debate?
• One other issue with conducting research in different
cultures is that the variables under review may not be
experienced in the same way by all participants.
• For instance, the behavioural expression of emotions such
as ‘aggression’ may give rise to quite different behaviours
within an indigenous population than they would in the
West..
• In China, the invasion of personal space is seen as normal,
whereas in the West this may be seen as threatening or
confrontational
• Issues like these may affect interactions between the
researcher and participants, or between Western and
non-Western participants, in cross-cultural studies.
What is socially sensitive research?
Social sensitivity refers to any psychological research that has wider
ethical implications that impact outside of the research context. The
research might affect people or groups in society
What are ethical implications of research studies and theory?
The social impact of psychological research once it has been conducted.
Although researchers may exercise considerable control over the
methods they select and the way they treat participants but they may have relatively little say in terms of:
• how their research findings are represented (or misrepresented) in the media
• The impact of their work on public policy
• How it may influence our perception of particular groups in society
What are the ethical issues in socially sensitive research?
Implications, uses/public policy, validity of the research
• Implications – the wider effects of
such research should be carefully
considered as some studies may be
seen as giving ‘scientific’ credence
to prejudice and discrimination e.g.
studies examining the racial basis
of intelligence. However the
implications of research may be
difficult to predict at the outset.
• Uses/public policy – what is the
research likely to be used for? And
what would happen if it was used
for the wrong purposes? This is
related to the idea that findings
may be adopted by the
government for political ends or to
shape public policy.
• The validity of the research –
some findings that were presented
as objective and value-free in the
past have actually turned out to be
highly suspect, sometimes even
fraudulent. However many modern
social constructionist researchers
who may tackle socially sensitive
topics are much more up-front
about their own biases and
preconceptions and comment on
this in their publication
What research influenced public policy? (Ethical implications) - 2 sets of research
Burt 1955
• Burt was influential in establishing the 11+ exam in the UK, which was
used to determine whether children had a secondary modern
education or went to grammar school (a decision which would likely
have a significant impact on their life chances)
• Burt’s views were based on the evidence he produced that intelligent
was genetic, citing twin studies showing a heritability coefficient of .77
• Discrepancies in his ‘data’ later revealed that Burt had made much of
it up as well as inventing two research assistants and he was publicly
discredited.
• The 11+ however, and the idea that children should be separated on
the basis of their ‘natural’ intelligence, remained for a good few years
afterwards and still lingers.
Bowlby
• Bowlby’s argument, that mother love in infancy is as important for mental health as vitamins are for physical health, influenced the way in which at least a generation of children were
raised.
• It may have also influenced the UK government’s decision not to offer free child care places to children under five (despite the fact that this is typical in other European countries)
• Bowlby’s work could also have had an indirect effect on the legal ‘norm’ that mothers are granted custody of the children in divorce and separation cases (whereas previously it was invariably given to fathers)
What are the benefits of socially sensitive research?
• Despite the ethical implications associated with
research into controversial and ‘taboo’ topics, Scarr
(1988) argues that studies of underrepresented
groups and issues may promote a greater
sensitivity and understanding of these
• This can help reduce prejudice and encourage
acceptance
• Socially sensitive research has benefitted society
e.g. research into the unreliability of eyewitness
testimony has reduced the risk of miscarriages of
justice within the legal system
• This suggests that socially sensitive research may
play a valuable role in society
Why is framing the question important in socially sensitive research?
• Sieber and Stanley (1988) warn that the way in
which research questions are phrased and
investigated may influence the way in which
findings are interpreted
• e.g. research into so-called ‘alternate relationships’
has been guilty of a form of heterosexual bias’
within which homosexual relationships were
compared and judged against heterosexual norms
• This suggests that investigators must approach
their research with an open mind and be prepared
to have their preconceptions challenged if they are
to avoid misrepresenting minority groups.
What is an example of social control in socially sensitive research?
• An America in the 1920s and 30s, a large number of US States enacted
legislation that led to the compulsory sterilisation of many citizens on
the grounds that they were ‘feeble-minded’ and a drain on society.
• This included people deemed to be of low intelligence, drug or alcohol
addicts and the mentally ill.
• The rationale, supported by many sections of the scientific and
psychological community at the time, was that such feeble-minded
people were ‘unfit’ to breed.
• The fact that socially sensitive research has been used to ‘prop up’ discriminatory practices in
the past is an argument against its widespread adoption
