Approaches Flashcards
Wunt:
1. What is introspection?
2. What did Wunt want psychology to be recognised as and what is something he did to show this?
3. Why is introspection an unreliable method?
- The process of ‘looking inwards’ - a stimulus e.g. a metronome would be used and people would report their reactions, sensations and feelings to investigate their consciousness in a controlled environment.
- A science - opened 1st psychology lab in 1870’s
- Too objective, unreliable
Freud:
1. Conscious or unconscious mind is the driving force behind our behaviour?
2. How did he believe you accessed this part of your mind?
3. What is psychoanalysis?
4. What is the problem with psychoanalysis?
- Unconscious
2.therapy - Evaluating dreams and reaching the unconscious mind
- Subjective
Hard to access subconscious mind
Only used single case studies
Watson and skinner- behaviourist approach:
1. What did they do when experimenting?
Used large samples in a controlled environment
Maslow - humanistic approach:
1. What did this approach emphasise the importance of?
1.self determination and free will
Cognitive approach:
1. What does it compare the mind to and why?
2. What does it observe to make inferences about mental processes?
- Computer
Input—> processing —> output - Human behaviour
Bandura- social learning theory:
1. How does this approach say propose we learn about behaviour?
2. What experiment did he conduct to show this?
- Through observing and imitating others
- Bobo doll
Biological approach:
- How does this approach learn about the mind?
- What type of neuroactivity does it record?
- Looks at biological structures ans uses experimental data
- Live brain activity e.g. through fMRI’s
Cognitive neuroscience:
1. What is this idea built on?
2.investigates how ———- structures influence mental state.
3. What does it link different part of the brain to?
- Cognitive approach
- Biological
- Different mental states
Explain the conscious, preconscious and unconscious with examples.
Conscious: immediate awareness- aware that you’re hungry
Preconscious: accessible memories- remember what you did last week
Unconscious: drives, instincts, repressed traumas, painful emotions- cannot remember cat dying.
What does the psychodynamic approach assume about behaviour?
Unconscious mind- driving force behind behaviour
Instincts/drives- motivate behaviour
Early childhood experiences- pivotal in making us the person we are
What is a Freudian slip?
The unconscious mind controls what you say, resulting in an accidental ‘slip’ of wording.
What 3 elements does Freud say forms our personality?
Id, ego, superego
What is the id and what traits does it have?
Pleasure principle
Instinctive
Present at birth
Selfish/demanding
Inconsiderate to others
What is the superego and what traits does it have?
Morality principle
Conscience
Moral code
Given by parents/ enforced by society
What is the ego and what traits does it have?
Reality principle
Logical
Rational
Acts as a balance between id and superego
Responds to reality
When does the id develop?
Born with it/ at birth
When does the superego develop?
3-6 years
What did Freud say a defence mechanism does?
Reduces anxiety
Does Freud say a defence mechanism is a conscious or unconscious action?
Unconscious
What does Freud say the defence mechanism repression is?
The act of forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind where it isn’t accessible.
What does Freud say the defence mechanism of denial is?
Refusing to acknowledge the reality of a current situation.
What does Freud say the defence mechanism displacement is?
Transferring feelings from the true source of a distressing emotion onto a substitute target (can be a person or object).
What does Freud say the psychosexual stages are?
A process of childhood where each stage is marked by a different conflict the child must progress through to reach the next stage. If a child gets ‘stuck’ on a stage it will affect their personality/ behaviour as an adult.
When does Freud say the oral stage is in development?
0-1 years
What does Freud say the oral stage is?
A sage where the child focuses on pleasure from the mouth. They may become orally aggressive where they gain pleasure from biting in later years of this stage.
How does Freud say a child can become fixated at the oral stage in development?
What is the effect of this as an adult?
If they are weaned from their mum too late or early, or if they have an erratic feeding pattern.
An adult can be orally aggressive (e.g. sarcastic and critical) or bite pens and smoke.
When does Freud say the anal stage of development is?
1-3 years
What does Freud say the anal stage of development is?
When children during this stage of development gain pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces.
How does Freud say a child can become fixated on the anal stage of development?
What is the effect of this as an adult?
If their parents are strict about their faeces the child can become anally retentive.
As an adult they can be anally repulsive (generous) or anally retentive (neat and like to have control over a situation).
What complexes can a child experience at the phallic stage of development?
Girls- electra
Boys - Oedipus
What is the Oedipus complex according to Freud?
-Boys have sexual feelings for their mother.
-Their father is their rival because they feel threatened (castration anxiety), so they befriend their dad so he is an ally. They act similar to him and the father helps develop their superego.
How can the Oedipus complex not be resolved and what happens if it isn’t?
If there is no father figure
Grow up homosexual
What is the electra complex?
- the realisation girls do not have a penis, they believe their mother has removed it
- they get penis envy and when this is not fulfilled it is expressed through the desire for a baby
- develop gender roles
what happens if the electra complex isn’t resolved?
The girl will grow up to be homosexual, narcissistic, jealous and anxious
when is the latent stage of development?
6+
What is the latent stage of development?
Focuses on being a child
A calm period
When is the genital stage of development?
12
What is the genital stage of development?
Sexual desires
Opposite sex attractions
Child becomes an adult
What happens if the genital stage of development is unresolved?
Difficulty with the opposite sex
What are strengths of the psychodynamic approach?
- useful - can explain personality, behaviour and development. Not caused by ‘evil spirits’
- childhood development- childhood shapes adult personality. Treat children better
- Psychoanalysis - still send today. Must have some validity
What are weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach?
-problems with psychoanalysis- hard to access unconscious mind, subjective, single case studies
- difficult to test- cannot measure or see it unlike behaviourist
What is classical conditioning?
Learning through association
What are two examples of classical conditioning experiments?
Pavlov’s dog
Little Albert
Explain the experiment of pavlov’s dog
Unconditioned stimulus (food) —> unconditioned response (salivation)
Neutral stimulus (bell)—> no conditional response (no salivation)
Bell + food —-> conditioned response (salivation)
Conditioners stimulus —-> conditioned response (salivation)
What is stimulus generalisation?
When stimuli similar to the conditions stimulus (eg bell) produces the conditional response
What is stimulus discrimination?
The conditional response (salivation) is only produced to the conditional stimulus (specific bell used) and not to similar stimuli.
What is extinction (in terms of classical conditioning)?
When the conditional response (salivation) disappears because the conditional stimulus (bell) is repeatedly presented in absence of the unconditional stimulus (food)
What is operant conditioning?
Learning through consequences
What does operant conditioning examine?
Voluntary behaviour
What is positive reinforcement?
When a behaviour is more likely to repeat because of its positive consequences
What is negative reinforcement?
When a behaviour is more likely to repeat to avoid negative consequences.
What is punishment?
When a behaviour is less likely to reoccur because of negative consequences
What are the three elements of operant conditioning?
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Punishment
What was Thorndike’s puzzle box experiment?
He observed how cats managed to escape a puzzle box through trial and error to get a reward
His work was key in understanding operant conditioning
What was the Skinner box experiment?
A rat was put in the ‘skinner box’
It pressed a leaver and a pellet of food was rewarded (positive reinforcement)
When a light came on an electric shock ran through the wire flooring, the rat had to press the leaver when the light came on to stop the electric shock (negative reinforcement)
What are the 4 types of reinforcement?
Fixed interval
Variable interval
Fixed ratio
Variable ratio
What is fixed interval reinforcement?
Reinforcement is given every fixed time period if the response has occurred at least once. E.g. being paid weekly
Resistance to extinction is fairly low (occurs quickly)
What is variable interval reinforcement?
A reinforcement is given e.g. on average every 30 seconds but it varies so the interval is unpredictable. E.g. a self employed person may receive payment irregularly depending on when a customer pays.
Resistance to extinction is very high (extinction occurs very slowly/ gradually).
What is fixed ratio reinforcement?
A reinforcement is given for a fixed number of responses (not time related) e.g. a piece of work (the more work done = more money earned).
Resistance to extinction = fairly low (extinction occurs quite quickly).
What is variable ratio reinforcement?
A reinforcement is given on average e.g. every 10 responses but the number varies (e.g. gambling).
Resistance to extinction is very high (the most resistant of all the schedules).
What are two advantages of behaviourism?
-scientific credibility
-real life applications eg phobias
What are two disadvantages of behaviourism?
- mechanistic view of behaviour, describes humans as passive and machine like e.g. if offered a reward humans would ignore all morals and beliefs (religion) to get the reward.
- applies us to animals (uses animals)- humans are very different.
How does behaviourism link to the issues and debates?
- Determinism, environmental determinism.
- Nurture, born as a blank slate.
- Nomothetic approach, study through development of general principles and universal laws.
- Environmental reductionism, explains behaviour in terms of stimulus-response links that have been learned through experience.
What are the assumptions of the social learning theory?
We learn behaviour by observing the positive and negative consequences of someone else’s (a role model’s) behaviour.
What are the 4 elements/ types of learning according to social learning theory?
Imitation
Identification
Modelling
Vicarious reinforcement
What is imitation according to social learning theory?
Observer observes behaviour from a role model and copies it
What is identification according to social learning theory?
The observer is influenced by another because they are in some way similar or wish to be like the role model e.g. gender, ethnicity
What is modelling according to social learning theory?
Observers pov= imitation of behaviour
Role model PoV= demonstration of behaviour (possibly of a desired behaviour)
What is vicarious reinforcement according to social learning theory?
- the observer sees the role model being rewarded or punished for an action.
- observer imitates so they can be rewarded
What are the meditational processes of social learning theory?
Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation
What does the meditational process of attention state in social learning theory?
The extent in which we notice behaviour
What does the meditational process of retention in social learning theory state?
How well the observed behaviour is remembered.
What does the meditational process of reproduction in social learning theory state?
The process of thinking about if they are physically capable to carry out the behaviour.
What does the meditational process of motivation in social learning theory state?
The process of thinking is it worth imitating the behaviour.
Weighing up the positives and negatives.
What does the mediational process of social theory show?
That humans are not mechanistic and consider actions and do not passively imitate a role modelling, making humans different to animals.
what did the Bobo doll experiment investigate?
Aggression in children
How did the Bobo doll experiment measure aggression in children?
- adult beat up doll in a room with a child and other toys.
- child imitated adult.
-closest imitation = observed adult of same sex
-adult play gently = child imitate
- same result from children watching scenario on tv, children became more violent. Shows violence didn’t ‘purge’ aggression.
What are the positives of social learning theory?
-explains cultural differences in behaviour
-can explain unpleasant behaviours e.g smoking
-application to real life e.g age certification on films
What are the negatives about the social learning theory?
- over reliance on lab studies
- underestimates biological factors e.g. hormone difference between sexs
What type of view of behaviour does Humanistic approach have?
Holistic
What does the Humanistic approach think behaviour cannot be?
Generalised
What does the Humanistic approach say about free will?
Humans aren’t deterministic and have free will
What does the Humanistic approach say the ideal self is?
What you want yourself to be like
What is counselling psychology in the Humanistic approach?
A therapist will provide you the unconditional positive regard you need to progress as it increases the persons’s feeling of self-worth.
What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
A human must move through this to reach self-actualisation. Basic needs are met first then more pleasurable things are met.
What is congruence in the Humanistic approach?
The ideal self and self concept must align/ be congruent to achieve self actualisation. This cannot be reached if one is lowered.
What is self actualisation in the Humanistic approach?
When all your needs have been met and you are fulfilled as a person.
What is the real self in the Humanistic approach?
Who you actually are
What is unconditional positive regard in the Humanistic approach?
You are loved unconditionally no matter what you do
What is self concept in the Humanistic approach?
Who you view yourself as
What are conditions of worth in the Humanistic approach?
These may be put upon someone, making them feel as if they need to meet these conditions to be loved.
What is the information processing model in the cognitive approach?
Input ——> processing ——-> output
What does the cognitive approach compare the mind to?
A computer
What are schemas in the cognitive approach?
Mental representations of out ideas about a person or a situation
The cognitive approach makes ____ about the mind from experimental results.
Inferences
What is cognitive neuroscience?
The scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes (e.g. memory, attention and perception)
What are the assumption of the cognitive approach?
- our thinking/ information processing shapes out behaviour
- thought process can be studied scientifically
- the mind works like a computer
What are the strengths/ positives of the cognitive approach?
- scientific and objective methods (fMRI and PET scans)
- application to real life (artificial intelligence)
- less deterministic (soft determinism)
What are the weaknesses/ negatives of the cognitive approach?
- Methodological problems (inference)
- Machine reductionism (ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation?
What are the assumptions of the biological approach?
- behaviour is rooted in the physiology and biology of the body
- behaviour is affected by genetics
- behaviour is affected by the central nervous system
- behaviour is affected by the chemistry of the body
What do geneticists study?
Wether behavioural characteristics are inherited in the same way as physical characteristics
What are twin studies?
When twins are studied to look at the concordance rates between pairs of twins.
Monozygotic twins have the ______ genotype?
Same
Dizygotic twins have a _____________ genotype.
Different
What are concordance rates?
The proportion of pairs of individuals that share an attribute.
What is a genotype ?
An individuals genetic make up
- inherited from parents
- dictate characteristics such as hair and eye colour.
- each individual has a unique genotype (except MZ twins)
What is a phenotype?
The product of what happens when the genotype interacts with the environment.
- what someone actually becomes.
What does the biological approach say about evolution and behaviour?
Any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individuals survival and reproduction will continue in future generations.
Initially there is a random change, a mutation, in the genetic make-up of an individual which leads to a characteristic or behaviour occurring.
Aggression is an example. Being aggressive will at some point have been advantageous in terms of survival and increased chances of survival/ reproduction.
What are the strengths of the biological approach?
- scientific methods of investigation e.g. fMRI scans
- real life application e.g psychoactive drugs were developed due to the understanding of biochemical processes.
What are the weaknesses of the biological approach?
- deterministic (biologically deterministic) - we have not control
- cannot separate nature from nurture
- over simplistic (biologically reductionist)
What are 2 strengths of the humanistic approach?
Positive approach:
-positive image of the human condition
-optimistic
-control over lives
-not deterministic
-personal development
Not reductionist:
-holism -consider the whole person
- unlike cognitive = machine reductionist
- biological = physiological processes
-Freud = Id egp superego conflict
- behaviourist = stimulus response
What are 2 weaknesses of the humanistic approach?
Untestable concepts:
-vague and unmeasurable e,g self actualisation and congruence
-lacks empirical evidence
-limited impact on psychology
- cannot predict behaviour e.g like behaviourists
Culture bias:
-individualist cultures e.g US use this
- doesn’t work in collectivist cultures e.g India which emphasise the needs of a community
- product of the context in which it was developed
-not generalisable to world unlike biological approach
