Aggression Flashcards
How is gaining resources from others (e.g. food, territory, mates) an example of an evolutionary explanation for aggression?
-Aggression can help an individual fight for resources
- this would be attractive to women because they would be able to protect and provide for offspring
- a potential mate is judged by how well he could provide for offspring
How is gaining status or dominance an evolutionary explanation for aggression?
- it argues that humans have a natural tendency for aggression and this shows dominance
- it is a chance to display attributes and essentially show off to females
- the victor is more likely to gain a mate to reproduce with
- they are likely to father more offspring and have a greater chance of furthering their genetic influence on further generations
How is deterring infidelity/ sexual jealousy an evolutionary explanation for aggression?
- sexual jealousy - male violence against partner is motivated by jealousy to ensure own genetic success
- individual fears loosing a mate to another individual
- infidelity poses a threat to a relationship and the possibility of offspring to another union
- paternity uncertainty- raising offspring that is not his own is a waste of his resources
What are the 2 mate retention strategies?
Direct guarding
Negative inducements
What is direct guarding?
Involves male vigilance over a partner’s behaviour (e.g checking who they’ve been seeing, coming home early,installing tracking apps)
What are negative inducements?
Issuing threats of dire consequences eg ill kill myself if you leave me
What is the evolutionary explanation of male bullying?
It is an adaptive behaviour thar increases their chances of survival and promote opportunities for reproduction
It is argues that the characteristics associated with bullying behaviour are attractive to the opposite sex e.g dominance in males
Such behaviour would be naturally selected as these males would have greater reproductive success
What is the evolutionary explanation of female bullying?
- female bullying more often takes place within a relationship
- it is a method of controlling a partner
- women use bullying behaviour to secure their partner’s fidelity
- they therefore continue to provide resources for future offspring
What are 2 strengths of the evolutionary explanation of aggression?
Sadalla et al (1987)
- suggests that women are attracted to dominant behaviour from men
- this supports the idea that aggression in men can increase their chance of reproductive success
- interestingly though, dominant behaviour may have enhanced their attractiveness, but it did not increase how much they were actually liked
- this possibly slows that mate preference is based on survival rather than happiness
Real-life application
- an evolutionary understanding can help devise anti-bullying interventions
- this explanation acknowledges that bullies bully because they stand to gain advantages for themselves
- one method could be to encourage bullies to compete in aggressive but fair sport
- thus would allows them the opportunity to display power but not through bullying
What are 2 weaknesses of the evolutionary explanation for aggression?
Social sensitivity
- evolutionary explanation seems to suggest that is is excusable and beyond a person’s control
- this has important implications for the legal system and within society generally
- it should not be used as an excuse for aggression
- this makes research socially sensitive and it should therefore be considered with care
What are the 2 elements of the ethological explanation of aggression?
Innate releasing mechanisms
Fixed action patterns
What are innate releasing mechanisms?
Built in physiological processes that response to a specific stimuli by initiating a fixed action pattern
What are fixed action patterns?
Innate, adaptive sequences of pre-programmed behaviours which are universal within a species
Why are fixed action patters ballistic?
It cannot be stoped once initiated
What is meant by most aggression is ritualise? (Ethnological explanation)
Aggression is released relatively harmlessly as if an animal was killed every time they fought its genes would not be passed too offspring
Animals mostly fight to assert dominance not kill
What is a strength of the Enthological explanation of aggression?
Supporting evidence of IRMs and FAPs
Tinberg (1951)
Presented sticklebacks with a series of wooden models of different shapes
Found: regardless of shape, if the model had a red spot, the stickleback would aggressively display and even attack it.
If there was no red sport there was no aggression, even if the model looked realistically like a stickleback.
Once, triggered the FAP always ran its course to completion without further stimulus
What are 3 weaknesses of the Ethological explanation of aggression?
Generalising from animal research:
- generalising from animal research to human aggression is problematic
- the environment in which an animal and human develop is very different
- it could be argues that there is little merit in generalise behaviours across species
- some species may well have an innate releasing mechanism and fixed action patters as it’s useful in their situation
- this cannot be said true for all humans
Universality:
- the ethological theory says that the behaviour is universal to the species
- this is clearly not the case for humans
- even within the same situation some will react aggressively, others will not
- this makes the presence of an innate mechanism and fixed action pattern unlikely
Research lacks validity:
- research into the ethological theory of aggression is said to lack validity
- behaviour is defined as aggressive by its outcome (e.g injuring or killing another creature)
- however it could be argues that this is purely predatory and the aggressive intent is not present
- it is a survival behaviour to get food
- as animals can’t communicate how they feel, it is often not possible to gauge wether the act was aggressive in animals
What did Dollard et al (1939) suggest about aggression?
Frustration always leads to aggression and aggression is always the result of aggression
What are the factors that affect the likelihood of aggression occurring?
Proximity to the goal
Wether the aggression will remove the barrier causing the frustration
Explain how proximity to the goal can increase the likelihood of aggression occurring.
If the individual is very close to achieving their goal then the likelihood of aggression occurring is much greater
Explain how wether aggression will remove the barrier causing frustration may increase the likelihood of aggression occurring
If aggression will have no effect on removing the barrier it is less likely to occur
What are the 3 reasons why aggression is not allows expressed directly against the source of frustration
- Cause of our frustration is abstract e.g. the economic situation
- The cause may be too powerful and we risk punishment by aggressing against it
- The cause may be unavailable at the time
Explain how aggressive cues work
Even if we become angry we might not behave aggressively
The presence of aggressive cues e.g guns in the environment make acting upon this much more likely
What is a strength of the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
Research support
Geen 1968
Conducted a study to investigate the effects of frustration on aggression.
Made university students were given the task of completing a jigsaw.
A confederate interfered with solving the puzzle.
The participants then had to give an electric shock to the confederate when they made a mistake on another task.
Found: groups of participants with interfering participant selected more intense shocks than control group.
This supports the frustration-aggression hypothesis.
What are the 3 weaknesses of the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
Aggression is not always prompted by frustration:
- e.g someone may be in a threatening situation and the aggression could be seen as self preservation not frustration
- premeditated aggressive acts of psychopaths are not usually underpinned by aggression
- there are other elements to aggressive behaviour
Not everyone who experiences frustration reacts with aggression:
- it is possible that someone may cry rather than become aggressive
- they may not feel anger and so react in a different way
- the theory cannot account for these different responses
Negative affect theory:
- frustration doesn’t always lead to aggression and aggression can occur without frustration
- frustration is just one of many stimuli that create negative feelings
- aggression is triggered but negative feelings, rather than frustration specifically
- the outcome can be a range of responses, only one which is aggression
What are the 3 weaknesses of the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
Aggression is not always prompted by frustration:
- e.g someone may be in a threatening situation and the aggression could be seen as self preservation not frustration
- premeditated aggressive acts of psychopaths are not usually underpinned by aggression
- there are other elements to aggressive behaviour
Not everyone who experiences frustration reacts with aggression:
- it is possible that someone may cry rather than become aggressive
- they may not feel anger and so react in a different way
- the theory cannot account for these different responses
Negative affect theory:
- frustration doesn’t always lead to aggression and aggression can occur without frustration
- frustration is just one of many stimuli that create negative feelings
- aggression is triggered but negative feelings, rather than frustration specifically
- the outcome can be a range of responses, only one which is aggression
What is negative effect theory?
- frustration doesn’t always lead to aggression and aggression can occur without frustration
- frustration is just one of many stimuli that create negative feelings
- aggression is triggered but negative feelings, rather than frustration specifically
- the outcome can be a range of responses, only one which is aggression
What is de-individuation?
A psychological state in which an individuals loses their personal identity and takes on the identity of the social group
What are elements of de-individuated behaviour?
- lose self awareness
- stop monitoring our behaviour
- ignore social norms
What are conditions of de-individuation which promote aggressive behaviour?
- anonymity
- uniforms
- alcohol
- drugs
- masks
What are the two types of self-awareness that can lead to aggression?
Private self-awareness
Public self-awareness
What is private self-awareness?
How we pay attention to our own feelings and behaviour
Reduced when we are part of a crowd
Pay less attention to own beliefs
Attention becomes focused outwardly to the events around us
In crowds self awareness is diminished
What is public self-awareness?
Refers to how much we care about what other people think of our behaviour
We realise we are just one individual among many
We are anonymous
Behaviour is less likely to be judged
We become less accountable for our aggressive actions
What are 3 strengths of the deindividuation explanation of aggression?
Research support:
- Douglas and McGarty (2001)
- looked at aggressive behaviour in chatrooms
- found a strong correlation between anonymity and ‘flaming’ - sending hostile messages
- the most aggressive messages were sent by those who chose to hide their real identities
- this suggests the existence of a link between anonymity, deindividuation and aggressive behaviour
Real life application:
- as deindividuation occurs in darkness, a practical application of research is to ensure areas are well-lit
- this will ensure that the sense of personal responsibility is not lost and that the likelihood of antisocial behaviour occurring is lowered
- CCTV can have a similar effect, as people are often aware that they can be seen and identified
- this will make them more accountable for their behaviour
Real life application:
- deindividuation theory can help us to understand aggressive behaviour in online services e.g Xbox live
- these services have many features that promote a psychological state of deindividuation
- there is a reduction of personal identity
- game playing in such an environment is arousing and immersive
- there is a the presence of a ‘crowd’ in the from of a potentially worldwide audience
What is a weakness of the deindividuation theory of aggression?
Limited explanation:
- deindividuation can only explain aggression that related to specific contexts (where deindividuation can occur)
- however aggression does occur outside these contexts
- the theory cannot explain every occurrence of aggression e.g. domestic violence
- the theory can be seen to have a narrow application
What are the 3 media influences on aggression?
Desensitisation
Disinhibition
Cognitive priming
What is desensitisation?
Repeated exposure to violence reduces normal levels of physiological and psychological arousal associated with anxiety, making aggression more likely to happen
What is disinhibition?
Normal social constraints against certain behaviour can be weakened by environmental triggers (e.g violent video games). These behaviours then appear temporarily socially acceptable and therefore more likely.
What is cognitive priming?
Violent images provide us with ready-made scripts about aggression which are stored in memory and triggered when we perceive aggressive cues in a situation
What is the strength of desensitisation?
Research support for desensitisation:
- Weisz and Earls (1995(
- showed participants the film ‘Straw Dogs’ which contains a prolonged and graphic scenes of rape.
- participants then watched a re-enactment of a rape trial
- compared to those who watched a non-sexually violent film, male viewers of Straw Dogs showed greater acceptance of rape myths and sexual aggression and were less likely to find the defendant guilty
What is direct learning in the social learning theory of aggression?
Positive reinforcement
- child aggressively snatches toy and is more likely to repeat due to the reward of the toy
Negative reinforcement
- more likely to start a fight with someone to avoid being called a wimp by friends
Punishment
- aggression is less likely to be repeated if a negative consequence has followed
What is indirect learning in the social learning theory to explain attachment?
- observational learning and vicarious reinforcement (e.g role models, observe consequences)
What does Bandura consider in the indirect learning element of SLT theory of aggression?
The meditational process
What is self-efficacy in SLT to explain aggression?
The extent to which we believe our actions will achieve a desired goal
What are 2 strengths of SLT to explain aggression?
Real-life application:
- adults (teachers/parents) can model pro-social behaviour and the rewards that come with it
- they can encourage children to form friendships with other who do not habitually behave aggressively which gives them mire opportunities to model non-aggressive behaviour
- reduces the development of aggression in children
Acknowledges cognitive factors in learning aggression (self-determinism)
- recognises the meditational process
- acknowledges we aren’t just passive responders to our environment (have some free will)
- more in line with the legal system which assumes we have some conscious control over our actions despite other factors influencing us
- less socially sensitive e.g than the evolutionary explanation which suggests the aggressive behaviour isn’t their fault
What are the weaknesses of SLT to explain aggression?
Underestimates the influence of biological factors
- boys had more aggressive behaviour than girls in the Bobo doll experiment (Bandura)
- SLT cannot explain a gender difference
- there are genetic, evolutionary, neural and hormonal factors which SLT barely acknowledges
- incomplete explanation
Cultural differences where aggression is not reinforced
- different cultures have different norms about which behaviours should be reinforced
- e.g Kung San tribe
- in this tube social norms don’t acknowledge aggression e.g parents don’t use aggression to discipline their children
- this means models of aggression are unavailable for children to observe
- vicarious reinforcement would also be a rare experience
What are the methodologies used to study media effects on aggression?
Experimental studies
Correlational studies
Longitudinal (these studies are correlational too)
Meta-analysis
What is an example of an experimental study on media influences on aggression?
Bartholow and Anderson (2002)
- lab-based
- students either played a violent or non-violent computer game for 10 minutes
- they all then carried out a measure of aggression (Taylor Competitive reaction time test)
- students are required to give blasts of white noise at chosen volumes to punish a component
Found:
- those who played the violent game selected higher noise levels compared to the nonviolent players
What are the strengths and weaknesses of using experimental studies to measure media effects on aggression?
- S: can establish a casual cause and effect
- W: artificial and unrealistic situations in a lab
What is an example of a correlational study on the effects of media on aggression?
DeLisi et al (2013)
- studies 227 juvenile offenders
- used unstructured interviews to gather data on several measures of aggression and violent computer game playing
Found:
- the offenders’ aggressive behaviour was significantly correlated with how often they played violent computer games
What are the strengths and weaknesses of using correlational studies to investigate the effects of media on aggression?
- S: allow us to investigate realistic forms of aggression
- W: cannot draw cause-and-effect conclusions
What is an example of a longitudinal study on the effects of media on aggression?
Robertson et al (2013)
- wanted to see if there was a link between excessive TV viewing in childhood and aggressive behaviour in adulthood
- studied people born in New Zealand and measured their TV viewing hours at regular intervals up to age 26
Found:
- time spent watching TV was a reliable predictor of aggressive behaviour in adulthood
- those who watched the most TV were also more likely to be diagnosed with anti-social personality disorder
What are the strengths and weaknesses of using longitudinal studies to investigate media effects on aggression?
- S: views people as active consumes rather than passive participants, which is a much more realistic view of how people interact with media
- W: may interact with other sources of aggression over the long period of time e.g. role models
What is an example of a study that uses meta-analysis to investigate the effect of media on aggression?
Anderson et al (2010)
- pardoned a meta-analysis of 136 studies
Found:
- exposure to violent computer games was associated with increases in aggressive behaviours, thoughts and feelings
- this was true for males and females across collectivist and individualist cultures
What are the strengths and weaknesses of using meta-analysis to investigate the effects of media on aggression?
- S: allows us to view data with much more confidence and results can be generalised accords much larger populations
- W: scientific research tends to mostly only publish findings that are statistically significant - this is an issue as meta-analysis generally only includes published studies - could bias conclusions and affect the validity
What is a weakness of desensitisation?
Not everyone is equally affected by desensitisation:
-It is hard to establish a connection between media exposure and desensitisation
- media exposure is widespread and yet we are not all affected equally
- individual vulnerability in terms of level of emotion experienced may explain why some are more desensitised than others
What is a strength of disinhibition?
Research support:
Berkowitz and Alioto (1973)
- found participants who saw a film showing aggression as vengeance gave more electric shocks to a confederate
- demonstrates the link between removal of social constraints and subsequence aggressive behaviour
What is a weakness of disinhibition?
May only apply to certain media
- it is likely that not all forms of media will evoke feelings of disinhibition
- there is bias in the research towards disinhibition in playing computer games
- this suggests that disinhibition may apply only to certain forms of media and that the strongest effect are found in computer gaming
What is a strengths of cognitive priming?
Practical application
- someone who habitually watches violent media accesses stored aggressive scripts more readily
- they are more likely to interpret cues as aggressive, resort to a violent solution and fail to consider alternatives
- effective interventions could potential reduce aggressive behaviours by challenging cognitive biases
What is a weakness of cognitive priming?
Cause and effect
- hard to establish cause and effect
- it is possibly that aggressive and violent people choose to watch more violent programmes, not that violent programmes cause the violent behaviour
What are the neural mechanisms in aggression?
The limbic system
Serotonin
Describe how the limbic system is involved in aggression.
Involved in processing emotional responses
What are the components of the limbic system?
Cingulate gyrus
Hypothalamus
Thalamus
Amygdala
Describe the role of the amygdala in aggression in the limbic system
Strong connection to aggression
Appears to function in tandem with the orbitofrontal cortex (which is not part of the limbic system)
Describe the role of serotonin in aggression.
Serotonin is thought to inhibit aggressive behaviour
Decreased serotonin may reduce self-control and lead to an increase in impulsive behaviour
What are the strengths of neural mechanisms in aggression?
Supporting research for the limbic system:
- Raine et al (1997)
- scanned 41 murderers and 41 controls
- PET scans showed that some of the murderers had abnormalities in the way their limbic systems functioned
- this suggests that the limbic system could be implicated in aggressive behaviour
Supporting research for serotonin:
- found when men take drugs that increase their serotonin levels, they display low levels of aggression
- this suggests that there may be a casual link between serotonin levels and aggressive behaviour
What are the weaknesses of neural mechanisms in aggression?
Research is correlational:
- the research linking brain abnormalities to violence is only correlational
- there are also people who have limbic system abnormalities who do not demonstrate violent behaviour
- cause and effect cannot be determined
Deterministic:
- there is a limited amount of control the individual has over their biochemistry
- therefore the individual has little control over how they act
- this has implications for the legal system and punishing violent crimes
Which hormone is mentioned is part of the hormonal explanation for aggression?
testosterone
Increased levels of testosterone are thought to be related to _________ levels of aggression.
Increased
What mechanisms is testosterone linked to that can explain aggression?
Aromatase
Orbital-frontal cortex
Serotonin
Describe the role of aromatase with testosterone in aggression.
Reduced levels of aromatase (enzyme) e.g in the amygdala means that the testosterone in the brain will not have enough enzyme for it to activate.
This means the testosterone will have less effect
This reduces the likelihood of an aggressive reaction
How is the orbito-frontal cortex with testosterone linked to aggression?
If an individual has high levels of testosterone, activity in the orbito-frontal cortex is reduced which leads to less self control as the orbito-frontal cortex is thought to be involved in self-control, impulse regulation and inhibition of aggression
How is serotonin and testosterone linked to aggression?
Testosterone can reduce the activity of serotonin
Low levels of serotonin are implicated in aggressive behaviour
What is a strength of hormonal mechanisms in aggression?
Dabbs et al (1987)
- measured testosterone levels in the saliva of 89 male prison inmates
- those with a higher testosterone concentration were more likely to have been convicted of violent crimes
- however, generalising from criminals may be problematic
What are 3 weaknesses of hormonal mechanisms in aggression?
Problems measuring testosterone levels:
- testosterone can be measured using saliva samples
- this is a reliable measure
- however, hormonal fluctuations occur throughout the day to test-retest reliability may be low
Problems with correlational research:
- as most of the research is correlational, no firm conclusions can be made about cause and effect
- testosterone levels may be a response to aggression, rather than a cause of it
- caution should be taken when describing the role testosterone plays in aggression
Deterministic:
- there is a limited amount of control the individual has over their hormones
- if aggression is explained in this way, it is saying the individual has little control over the way they act - this has implications in the legal system
What are the ways in which our genetic make up can potentially affect our levels of aggression?
- genes can determine levels of testosterone
- the speed with which testosterone is metabolised (processed by the body)
- genes can determine the physiology of the brain
- genes can determine the strength of the pathways between the limbic system and the frontal cortex
How is genetic infeluce on aggression investigated?
Twin and adoption studies
Family studies
Animal research
Describe the role of the MAOA gene
MAOA gene controls the production of the MAOA enzyme.
Describe the role of the MAOA enzyme
Involved in processing serotonin.
Some versions of the MAOA gene result in lower levels of MAOA, and therefore lower levels of serotonin, which has been linked to aggression.
What is the warrior gene?
MAOA gene
Describe the gene-environment interactions to explain aggression
- an individual inherits a predisposition to being aggressive
- this predisposition can be mediated by the environment
- aggressiveness is influenced by a variation in the MAOA gene which is sensitive to social experiences in early development
What is a strength of genetic factors to explain aggression?
Evidence implicating the MAOA gene:
Brunner et al (1993)
- studied 5 male members of a family in the Netherlands
- they demonstrated impulsive aggression
- through monitoring their rune samples it was found that they has a shorted versions of the MAOA gene which meant they have the MAOA enzyme deficiency
- this shows the the MAOA gene can affect families
- this case has important implications in the lega system and how culpable someone is of any crime they commit
What are the weaknesses of genetic factors to explain aggression?
Deterministic
- cannot control genetics
- implications in punishing crimes in the legal system
Isolating genetic factors
- difficult to Separate genetic and environmental factors
- an individual may posses a gene associated with aggression but that behaviour is only expressed if environmental conditions are favourable
- interaction with the environment is clearly important as well as the gene
- incomplete explanation
Multiple genetic influences:
- there are probably other genes involved in aggression
- it has been calculated that hundreds or thousands of genes interact in complex ways to determine aggressive behaviour
- this casts doubt over any candidate gene
what are the 2 explanations of aggression in prisons?
Dispositional explanation
Situational explanation
Which model is used in the Dispositional explanation of institutional aggression?
Importation model
Importation model
Describe the importation model
- prisoners import their aggressive tendencies into prison with them
- these aggressive characteristics may come from sources such as genetics, testosterone and serotonin levels
- the aggression that is evident in prisons is no different to how the offenders act when they’re in their home environment
What are the situational explanations of institutional aggression?
Organisational
Physical
Staff characteristics
Describe the organisational situational explanation of institutional aggression
The influence of rules and regulations that prisoners must adhere to can prompt aggression as the expectation is that all prisoners must follow them
Describe the physical situational explanation of institutional aggression
The potentially cramped conditions, threatening environment and lack of comfort can lead to aggression
Describe staff characteristics as a situational explanation of institutional aggression
The attitude and behaviour of the staff can be influential in promoting aggression in inmates e.g. clash of personalities
Which model is used in the situational explanation of institutional aggression?
The deprivation model
Describe the deprivation model to explain institutional aggression
Places the cause of institutional aggression within the prison environment itself
Harsh prison conditions are stressful for inmates who have to cope by reporting to aggressive and violent behaviour
Describe deprivation of liberty as part of the deprivation model to explain institutional aggression
- loss of freedom may reinforce the feeling of rejection from society
- offenders are more likely to be antagonistic and aggressive
Describe deprivation of autonomy as part of the deprivation model to explain institutional aggression
- no independence or control over their day to day loved
- feeling of helplessness can lead to frustration and aggression
- leads to feelings of anger and powerlessness
Describe deprivation of goods and services as part of the deprivation model to explain institutional aggression
- access to goods is severely restricted
- deprivation of some material goods can increase competition amongst inmates to acquire them which increases aggression
Describe deprivation of heterosexual relationships as part of the deprivation model to explain institutional aggression
- no companionship
- can lead to frustration and consequently aggression
Describe deprivation of security as part of the deprivation model to explain institutional aggression
- the prison environment doesn’t feel secure for most prisoners
- they fear for their personal safety
- this fear can lead to heightened awareness and defensiveness
- this could make aggression more likely
What are the strengths of the explanation of institutional aggression?
Dispositional explanation is idiographic:
- it looks at prisoners in a more idiographic way rather than saying they’re all the same
- the theory is arguing that the effects of experiences and predisposition are individual and therefore can explain well why some offenders are violent and others not
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:
- supports the idea that situational effects in a prison could lead to aggression
- physiological needs cannot be met all the time due to the enforced regime of sleeping and eating
- safety needs are not possible to due the lack of perceived safety
- this means the drive to self-actualisation is prevented and can therefore lead to negative behaviours
What are the weaknesses of the explanations of institutional aggression?
Evidence against situational factors:
Hensley at al (2002)
- studies 25 male and female inmates in prisons which allowed conjugal visits (victims for partners to have sex)
- there was no link between involvement in these visits and reduced aggressive behaviour
- this shows situational factors don’t affect prison violence
Interactionist model:
- the importation model may be a better explanation of violence between inmates, but the deprivation model is more useful in understanding aggression against prison staff
- an interactionist mode may be more appropriate
- Inmates entering prion for the first time will suffer deprivation but deprivation doesn’t necessarily lead to violence unless it combines with the individual characteristics imported into prisons by inmates
