issues and debates Flashcards
what is meant by universality
that conclusions drawn can be applied to everyone, anywhere ,regardless of time and culture
what is gender bias
the differential treatment and representation of males and females, based on stereotypes and not on real differences.
what is alpha bias
theories that exaggerate the differences between males and females.
example of alpha bias (freud)
Freud argued that because girls do not suffer the same oedipal conflict as boys, they do not identify with their mothers as strongly as boys identify with their fathers due to castration anxiety , so develop weaker superegos.
example of alpha bias (chodorow)
Chodorow suggested that daughters and mothers have a greater connections than sons and mothers because of biological similarities. As a result of the child’s closeness,women develop better abilities to bond with others and empathise .
what is beta bias
theories that ignore or minimise sex differences. These theories often assume that the findings from studies using males can apply equally to females.
Elaborate the beta bias in the fight of flight research
-it assumes that both women and men respond to threatening situations with fight of flight
what is androcentrism
male centered,when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard meaning that female behaviour is often judged to be ‘abnormal’ by comparison
evaluation 1 of gender bias- biological vs social explanations
-weakness
-gender differences presented as fixed and enduring when they are not
-Maccoby and Jacklin suggested that differences are hardwired into the brain before birth
-Joel used brain scanning and found no such sex differences in brain structure and processing
-suggests that we should be wary of biological facts as they might be explained better as social stereotypes
evaluation 2 of gender bias- counterpoint
-doesn’t mean psychologists should avoid studying possible gender differences in the brain
-Ingalhalikar suggests that the stereotype of women being good multitaskers might have a biological truth to it
-woman’s brain may benefit from better connections between right and left hemisphere
-suggests that there might be biological differences but we have to be wary of them
evaluation 3 of gender bias-sexism in research
-weakness
-gender bias promotes sexism in research
-Women are underrepresented in uni departments such as science so research is more likely to be conducted by men
-this may disadvantage women participants as a male researcher may see women to be irrational and unable to complete tasks (Nicolson)
-means that methods of psychology may produce findings that are gender biased
evaluation 4 of gender bias- gender biased research
-weakness
-research challenging gender bias may not be published
-Formanowicz analysed more than 1000 articles and found that research on gender bias is funded less and is published by less prestigious journals
-it was compared to other forms of bias such as ethnic bias and it was the least dealt with
-suggests that gender bias may not be taken as seriously as other forms of bias
what is cultural bias
tendency to interpret all phenomena through the lens of one’s own culture,ignoring the effects that cultural differences might have on behaviour
Henrich reviewed hundreds of studies in leading psychology journals and found that ….% of research participants came from the US
68%
meaning of ethnocentrism
judging other cultures by standards and values of ones own culture. Its the belief in the superiority of one’s own culture group
why is strange situations criticised for ethnocentrism
-reflects only the norms and values of western culture
-it suggested that the ideal attachment is secure attachment which deviated from other countries which have different practices
-japanese infants are most likely to be classed as insecurely attached
what is cultural relativism
idea that norms and values as well as ethics and moral standards can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts
what does the etic approach look at?
behaviour from outside of a given culture and attempts to describe those behaviours as universal
what does an emic approach do?
functions from the inside a culture and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture
how is Aimsworth and Bell’s research an example of imposed etic
they studied behaviour inside one culture (America) and then assumed their ideal attachment could be applied universally
what does Berry argue (cultural relativism)
that psychology has often been guilty of an imposed etic approach
evaluation 1 of cultural bias- classic studies
-weakness
-most influential studies in psychology are culturally-biased
-e.g. Asch’s and Milgram’s original studies were conducted exclusively with US participants
-replications of these studies in different countries produced different results
-e.g. asch’s type experiments in collective cultures produced higher rates of conformity
-this suggests our understanding of topics such as social influence should be only applied to individualistic cultures
evaluation 2 of cultural bias- counterpoint
-due to increased media globalisation, it is argued that individualistic-collectivism distinction does not apply
-Takano and Osaka found that 14 out of 15 studies that compared the US to Japan found no evidence of individualism or collectivism
-this suggests that cultural bias in research may be less of an issue in more recent psychological research
evaluation 3 of cultural bias- cultural psychology
-strength
-emergence of cultural psychology
-cultural psychologists strive to avoid ethnocentric assumptions by taking an emic approach and conducting research from inside from inside the culture
-suggests that modern psychologists are mindful of the dangers of cultural bias and are taking steps to avoid it
evaluation 4 of cultural bias-ethnic stereotyping
-weakness
-cultural bias has led to prejudice against groups of people
-Gould explained how first intelligence tests led to eugenic social policies in the US
-first IQ test had many ethnocentric items so people from southern europe and african americans received lower scores
-ethnic minorities were seen as mentally unfit and feeble minded in comparison to the white majority
-this illustrates how cultural bias can be used to justify prejudice and discrimination towards certain cultures
what is free will
notion that humans can make choices and their behaviour is not determined by biological or external forces
what is determinism
view that an individual’s behaviour is shaped/controlled by internal or external forces rather that an individual’s will to do something
what are the two versions of determinism
hard and soft determinism
what is hard determinism
view that all behaviour is caused by something so free will is an illusion
what is soft determinism
view that behaviour may be predictable but there is also room for personal choice (restricted free will)
what are the three types of determinism
biological,environmental and psychic
what is biological determinism
belief that behaviour is caused by biological (hormones,genetics) influences that we cannot control
what is environmental determinism
belief that behaviour is caused by features of the environment that we cannot control
what is psychic determinism
belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious psychodynamic conflicts that we cannot control
evaluation 1 of free will vs determinism - practical value
evaluation 2 of free will vs determinism- research evidence
evaluation 3 of free will vs determinism- counterpoint of research evidence
evaluation 4 of free will vs determinism- the law
what is the nature vs nurture debate
the extent to which aspects of our behaviour are a product of inherited or acquired characteristics
Interactionist approach- the nature vs nurture debate
A way to explain the development of behaviour in terms of a range of factors in terms of both biological and psychological ones. Factors combine in a way that can’t be predicted by each one separately.
diathesis-stress model- the nature vs nurture debate
Suggests behaviour is caused by a biological/ environmental vulnerability which is only expressed when coupled with a biological/environmental trigger
What is an example of the diathesis stress model
A person who inherits a genetic vulnerability for OCD may not develop the disorder, but combined with psychological triggers this may result in the disorder appearing
Epigenetics- the nature vs nurture
-refers to change in our genetic code without changing the genes themselves.
-process that occurs throughout life
-caused by interactions with our environment
-Aspects of our lifestyle or events we encounter leave marks on our DNA which switch genes on or off
1.what is meant by nature
2. what does descartes argue about it
1-refers to the inherited influences
2-All human characteristics are innate
