gender

Question 1

define sex

Answer 1

the biological differences between males and females including hormones,chromosomes and anatomy

Question 2

what are the chromosomes for females and males

Answer 2

females =XX
males=XY

Question 3

define gender

Answer 3

the physical,social and cultural differences between boys/men and girls/women including attitudes,behaviours and social roles

Question 4

what is gender dysphoria

Answer 4

when a person’s biologically prescribed sex does not reflect the way they feel inside

Question 5

what is meant by sex-role stereotype

Answer 5

a set of belief and preconceived ideas about what is expected or appropriate for men and women in a given society or social group

Question 6

what is androgyny

Answer 6

displaying a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics in one’s personality

Question 7

what is bem sex role inventory

Answer 7

the systematic attempt to measure androgyny using a rating scale of 60 traits (20 masculine,20 feminine and 20 neutral) to produce scores across two dimensions: masculinity-femininity and androgynous-undifferentiated

Question 8

Who discovered the BSRI

Answer 8

Sandra Bem

Question 9

what classification would these scores have :
1.high masculine,low feminine
2.high feminine, low masculine
3.high masculine,high feminine
4.low feminine,low masculine

Answer 9

1.masculine
2.feminine
3.androgynous
4.undifferentiated

Question 10

what are some masculine items on the BRSI

Answer 10

-acts as a leader
-aggressive
-analytical
-competitive
-dominant
-independent
-willing to take risks

Question 11

what are some feminine items on the BRSI

Answer 11

-affectionate
-compassionate
-gentle
-gullible
-loves children
-understanding
-warm

Question 12

evaluation 1 -quantitative approach (androgyny)

Answer 12

-strength
-Bem’s work on androgyny is measured quantitatively
-Bem’s numerical approach is useful for research purposes when its necessary to quantify a dependent variable
-Spence argues that there is more to gender so qualitative methods offer better way of analysing gender e.g PAQ adds another dimension to Bem’s work
-suggests that both qualitative approaches may be useful for studying different aspects of androgyny

Question 13

evaluation 2 - valid and reliable (androgyny)

Answer 13

-strength
-BSRI at the time it was developed appeared valid and reliable when testing androgyny
-the BSRI was piloted with over 100 students and the results corresponded with participants own description of their own gender identity showing validity
-follow up study involving a smaller sample of the same students produced similar scores when students were tested a month later showing reliability
-this gives reason to believe the test was both valid and reliable

Question 14

evaluation 3 - counterpoint of validity and reliability (androgyny)

Answer 14

-BSRI was developed over 40 years ago and behaviours regarded to gender have changed significantly since then
-Bem’s scale is made up of stereotypical ideas of masculinity and femininity
-only used people from US and notions of maleness may be different across all cultures
-suggests BSRI may lack generalisability and temporal validity, therefore not suitable to measure gender identity today

Question 15

evaluation 4 - self awareness (androgyny)

Answer 15

-limitation
-asking people to rate themselves on questionnaires relies on people having an understanding of their personality and behaviour they might not have
-gender is a social construct which may be open to interpretation
-people’s application of the scale may differ and scoring system is subjective
-suggests that the BSRI may not be objective, scientific way of assessing masculinity ,femininity and androgyny

Question 16

what are chromosomes

Answer 16

found in the nucleus of living cells and carrying information in the form of genes. the 23rd pair of chromosomes determines the biological sex

Question 17

what is a hormone

Answer 17

a biochemical substance that circulates in the blood but only affects target organs

Question 18

what is testosterone

Answer 18

-male hormone
-controls the development of male sex organs during foetal development
-high levels of testosterone are linked to to aggression because its adaptive
-aggression towards rivals allows males to compete for the opportunity to mate a fertile female

Question 19

what is oestrogen

Answer 19

-female hormone
-determines female sexual characteristics and menstruation
-causes some women to experience heightened emotionality and irritability during their menstrual cycle
-this is referred to as PMS
-PMS has been used as a defence for shoplifting and even murder

Question 20

what is oxytocin

Answer 20

-typically produced by women in much larger amounts
-stimulates lactation making it possible for mothers to breastfeed
-referred to as the love hormone
-its released in massive quantities during labour and after birth makes mother fall in love with their baby

Question 21

evaluation 1- evidence for testosterone (role of chromosomes and hormones)

Answer 21

-strength
-evidence supports the role of sex hormones in gender development
-Male hypogonadism is a condition caused by a man’s testes failing to produce normal levels of testosterone.
-Wang et al. gave 227 hypogonadal men testosterone therapy for 180 days.
-Changes in body shape, muscle strength, sexual function and libido were all monitored across the period. -Testosterone replacement improved sexual function, libido and mood, and significant increases in muscle strength were observed within the sample.
-This study shows that testosterone exerts a powerful and direct influence on male sexual arousal, as well as physical development, in adulthood.

Question 22

evaluation 2- counterpoint of evidence for testosterone (role of chromosomes and hormones)

Answer 22

-Other evidence on the effect of testosterone is rather less convincing. -O’Connor et al increased testosterone levels in healthy young men.
-There were no significant increases in the interactional or non-interactional components of sexual behaviour in participants.
-the men involved in the study experienced no change in their aggression or anger levels during the investigation either.
-This suggests that additional testosterone may have no effect on sexual or aggressive behaviour

Question 23

evaluation 3- social factors ignored (role of chromosomes and hormones)

Answer 23

-limitation
-biological accounts ignore the role of social factors in gender-related behaviour.
-Hofstede et al. claim that gender roles around the world are much more a consequence of social norms than biology.
-Countries that place individual competition and independence above the needs of community, are, according to Hofstede et al., more masculine in their outlook.
-traditional masculine traits will be more highly valued within these societies.
-This suggests social factors may ultimately be more important in shaping gender behaviour and attitudes.

Question 24

evaluation 4- reductionist (role of chromosomes and hormones)

Answer 24

-limitation
-biological explanations of gender is reductionist.
-it has been accused of ignoring or underplaying alternative explanations. -The cognitive approach would draw attention to the influence of thought processes such as schema
-In addition, the psychodynamic approach would acknowledge maturation as a factor but point to the importance of childhood experiences such as interaction within the family.
-This suggests that gender is more complex than its biological influences alone.

Question 25

what is meant by atypical sex chromosomes

Answer 25

any sex chromosome pattern that deviates from the usual XY/ XX formation and which tends to be associated with a distinct pattern of physical and psychological symptoms

Question 26

1. what is the Klinefelter’s syndrome
2. what are the physical characteristics of it
3. what are the psychological characteristics of it

Answer 26

1.-Klinefelter’s syndrome is an example of an atypical sex chromosome pattern.
-Individuals who have this condition are biological males and have an additional X chromosome.
-As such, their sex chromosome structure is XXY.

2. Physical characteristics : reduced body hair, breast development at puberty, softening’ or ‘rounding of body contours, long gangly limbs, underdeveloped genitals, and may have problems with coordination and general clumsiness.

3.Psychological characteristics:
-poorly developed language skills and reading ability
-Individuals tend to be passive, shy and lack interest in sexual activity.
-Many tend not to respond well to stressful situations
-problems with ‘executive functions, e.g. memory, problem-solving, etc

Question 27

1. what is the turner’s syndrome
2. what are the physical characteristics of it
   3.what are the psychological characteristics of it

Answer 27

1. -in biological women
   -caused by an absence of one of the two allotted X chromosomes
   -it is referred to as XO.

2.Physical characteristics: do not have a menstrual cycle, infertile, do not develop breasts at puberty, low set ears ,’webbed’ neck, high waist-to-hip ratio (retain the appearance of prepubescent girls)

3.Psychological characteristics:
-higher-than-average reading ability.
-performance on spatial, visual memory and mathematical tasks is often lower than average.
-tend to be socially immature
-have trouble relating to their peers and experience difficulty ‘fitting in.

Question 28

evaluation 1- nature vs nurture debate ( atypical sex chromosomes)

Answer 28

-strength
-contributes to the nature-nurture debate.
-By comparing people who have these syndromes with chromosome-typical individuals it becomes possible to see psychological and behavioural differences between the two groups
-It might be logically inferred that these differences have a biological basis and are a direct result of the abnormal chromosomal structure.
-This would support the view that innate ‘nature influences have a powerful effect on psychology and behaviour.

Question 29

evaluation 2- counterpoint of nature vs nurture debate ( atypical sex chromosomes)

Answer 29

-It may be that environmental and social influences are more responsible for the behavioural differences observed.
-e.g. social immaturity seen in females with Turner’s syndrome may arise from the fact that they are treated ‘immaturely’ by the people around them.
-Parents, teachers and others may react to the prepubescent appearance of people with Turner’s in a way that encourages immature behaviour and this may have an indirect impact upon their performance at school
-This shows that it could be wrong to assume that psychological and behavioural differences in people with atypical sex chromosome patterns are due to nature.

Question 30

evaluation 3- real world application ( atypical sex chromosomes)

Answer 30

-strength
-application to managing the syndromes.
-Continued research into atypical sex chromosome patterns is likely to lead to earlier and more accurate diagnoses of Turner’s and Klinefelter’s syndromes
-An Australian study of 87 individuals with Klinefelter’s syndrome showed that those who had been identified and treated from a very young age experienced significant benefits in terms of managing their syndrome, compared to those who had been diagnosed in adulthood (Herlihy et al ).
-This suggests that increased awareness of atypical chromosome patterns does have a useful real-world application.

Question 31

evaluation 4- sampling issue ( atypical sex chromosomes)

Answer 31

-limitation
-may be a sampling issue.
-necessary to identify a large number of individuals with the disorder and build a database.
-only those people who have the most severe symptoms are identified and therefore the picture of typical symptoms may be distorted.
-Boada et al. followed XXY individuals from birth and found that many individuals with Klinefelter’s do not experience significant cognitive or psychological problems
-This suggests that the typical picture of Klinefelter’s (and Turner’s syndrome) may well be exaggerated.

Question 32

what are the 2 cognitive explanations of gender development

Answer 32

-Kohlberg’s theory
-gender schema theory

Question 33

What is Kohlberg’s cognitive developmental theory of gender based on

Answer 33

-the idea that a child’s understanding of gender (including what counts as appropriate gender roles, behaviours and attitudes) becomes more sophisticated with age.
-But the link with age is not because of experience.
-It comes as a result of biological maturation - as the brain matures so does thinking.

Question 34

what are the three stages of gender development and state what happens in each

Answer 34

*Stage 1: Gender identity
-Around the age of 2 years, children are able to correctly identify themselves as a boy or a girl. This is gender identity.
- At 3 years, most children are able to identify other people as men or women
-can correctly respond to questions such as, Which one of these is like you? if they are shown a picture of a man or a woman.
-Their understanding of gender tends not to stretch much beyond simple labelling.
-children of this age group do not view gender as fixed. e.g., a two 1/2 year-old boy may be heard to say when I grow up will I be a mummy.

*Stage 2: Gender stability
- at age 4 years
- children acquire gender stability: realisation that they will always stay the same gender
-children of this age cannot apply this logic to other people in other situations.
-They are often confused by external changes in appearance - they may describe a man who has long hair as a woman

*Stage 3: Gender constancy
-around the age of 6 years,
-children recognise that gender remains constant across time and situations, and this understanding is applied to other peoples gender
-they are no longer fooled by changes in outward appearance.
-children of this age begin to seek out gender-appropriate role models to identify with and imitate.
-A tendency towards gender stereotyping begins to emerge at this age.

Question 35

evaluation 1- research support ( Kohlberg’s theory)

Answer 35

-strength
-evidence suggests that gender stereotyping does emerge around the age of 6 as he predicted.
-Damon told children a story about George, a boy who liked to play with dolls.
-The children were asked to comment on the story
-Four-year-olds said it was fine for George to play with dolls if he wanted to.
-In contrast, six-year-olds thought it was wrong for George to play with dolls.
-This would suggest that children who have achieved constancy have formed rigid stereotypes regarding gender-appropriate behaviour.

Question 36

evaluation 2- counterpoint of research support ( Kohlberg’s theory)

Answer 36

-Other research challenges the idea that an interest in gender appropriate behaviour develops around age 6
-Bussey and Bandura found that children as young as 4 reported feeling good about playing with gender appropriate toys and feeling bad doing the opposite
-This contradicts what Kohlberg’s theory would predict, and support gender schema theory, which suggests that children begin to absorb gender-appropriate information as soon as they reach gender identity

Question 37

evaluation 3- methodological problem ( Kohlberg’s theory)

Answer 37

-limitation
-supporting research relies on unsatisfactory methods to assess gender constancy.
-Bem has criticised the methodology used in many studies of the link between gender and cognitive development.
-In reality, the best way to identify males and females is through physical differences, such as genitalia
-Bem demonstrated that 40% of children aged 3-5 years were able to demonstrate constancy if they were shown a naked photo of the child-to-be-identified first (i.e. they based their judgements on more than clothing).
-This suggests that the typical way of testing gender constancy may misrepresent what younger children actually know.

Question 38

evaluation 4- degrees of constancy ( Kohlberg’s theory)

Answer 38

-limitation
-other researchers have suggested there may be different degrees of gender constancy.
-Martin et al. suggest there may be different degrees of gender constancy.
-An initial degree may orient children to the importance of gender - in choosing friends or seeking information, for instance - and this may develop before the age of 6
-A second degree of constancy (which develops later) may heighten children’s responsiveness to gender norms, particularly under conditions of conflict, such as choosing appropriate clothes or attitudes.
-This suggests that the acquisition of constancy may be a more gradual process and may begin earlier than Kohlberg thought.

Question 39

Gender schema after gender identity (BST)

Answer 39

-Schema are mental constructs that develop via experience and are used by our cognitive system to organise knowledge around particular topics.
-gender schema is a generalised representation of everything we know in relation to gender and stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour.
-Martin and Halverson stated that once a child has established gender identity around the age of 2-3 years he or she will begin to search the environment for information that encourages development of gender schema.

Question 40

Gender schema determines behaviour (GST)

Answer 40

-Gender schema expand to include a wide range of behaviours and personality traits.
-For young children, schema are likely to be formed around stereotypes, such as boys play with trucks and girls play with dolls, and these provide a framework that directs experience as well as the child’s understanding of itself
-By 6 years of age, children have a rather fixed and stereotypical idea about what is appropriate for their gender.
-For this reason, children are likely to misremember or disregard information that does not fit with their existing schema

Question 41

ingroup information better remembered (GST)

Answer 41

-Children tend to have a much better understanding of the schema that are appropriate to their own gender (the ingroup).
-children pay more attention to information relevant to their gender identity, rather than that of the other gender
-It is not until children are a little older (around 8) that they develop elaborate schema for both genders, as opposed to just their own.

Question 42

evaluation 1- research support ( GST)

Answer 42

-strength
-key principles are supported by evidence.
-Martin and Halverson found that children under the age of 6 were more likely to remember photographs of stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour than photographs of gender-inappropriate behaviour when tested a week later.
-Children tended to change the gender of the person carrying out the gender-inappropriate activity in the photographs when asked to recall them so that the gender behaviour was now appropriate.
-This provides support for gender schema theory which predicts that children under 6 years would do this (in contrast with Kohlberg who predicted this would only happen when children are older).

Question 43

evaluation 2- earlier gender identity (GST)

Answer 43

-limitation
-gender identity probably develops earlier than Martin and Halverson suggested.
-A longitudinal study of 82 children looked at the onset of gender identity.
-Data was obtained from twice-weekly reports from mothers on their children’s language from age 9 to 21 months, alongside videotaped analysis of the children at play.
-key measure of gender identity was how and when children labelled themselves as a ‘boy’ or girl.
-This occurred, on average, at 19 months - suggests that children have a gender identity before this but just don’t communicate it.
-This suggests that Martin and Halverson may have underestimated children’s ability to use gender labels about themselves.

Question 44

evaluation 3- counterpoint of earlier gender identity (GST)

Answer 44

-it may not be appropriate to argue about specific ages for Martin and Halverson’s theory.
-They suggest that the key point is the shifts in a child’s thinking and that the ages are averages rather than absolutes.
-It is possible that many children may move through stages quicker or slower than others.
-It is the sequence of development that is more important.
-This suggests that Zosul’s finding is not a fundamental criticism of the theory.

Question 45

evaluation 4- cultural differences (GST)

Answer 45

-strength
-gender schema theory can account for cultural differences in stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour.
-Cherry argues that gender schema not only influence how people process information but also what counts as culturally-appropriate gender behaviour.
-Traditional cultures, that believe women should take a nurturing role and that men should pursue a career, will raise children who form schema which are consistent with this view.
- In societies where perceptions of gender have less rigid boundaries, children are more likely to acquire more fluid gender schema.
-This contrasts with some other explanations of gender development, such as psychodynamic theory, which suggests gender identity is more driven by unconscious biological urges.

Question 46

what are the other two explanations of gender development apart from the cognitive ones

Answer 46

psychoanalytic theory and Social Learning theory (SLT)

Question 47

the pre-phallic children ( Psychoanalytic theory)

Answer 47

-Prior to reaching the phallic stage, children have no concept of gender identity.
-They have no understanding of ‘male or ‘female’ and so do not categorise themselves or others in that way.
-In the phallic stage, the focus of pleasure for the child switches to the genitals, and it is within this stage that children experience the Oedipus complex (boys) or the Electra complex (girls).
-These stages are crucial in the formation of gender identity.

Question 48

Oedipus complex ( psychoanalytic theory)

Answer 48

-In the phallic stage, boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother.
-They harbour a jealous and murderous hatred for their father who stands in the way of the boy possessing his mother.
-However, the boy also recognises that his father is more powerful than he is and fears he may be castrated by his father for his feelings towards his mother, leading to castration anxiety.
-To resolve the conflict, the boy gives up his love for his mother and begins to identify with his father.

Question 49

Electra complex (psychoanalytic theory)

Answer 49

-in the phallic stage, girls experience penis envy, seeing themselves and their mother as being in competition for their father’s love.
-Girls develop a double-resentment towards their mother.
-First, the mother is a love rival standing in the way of the father, and second, the mother is blamed by their daughter for having no penis
-Jung suggested that girls come to accept that they will never have a penis and substitute penis envy with the desire to have children, identifying with their mothers as a result.

Question 50

identification and internalisation (psychoanalytic theory)

Answer 50

-children of both sexes identify (identification) with the same-gender parent as a means of resolving their respective complexes.
-Boys adopt the attitudes and values of their father, and girls adopt those of their mother.
-This involves children taking on board the gender identity of the same-gender parent, referred to as internalisation.
-both boys and girls receive a ‘second-hand’ gender identity all at once at the end of the phallic stage.

Question 51

little Hans ( psychoanalytic theory)

Answer 51

-Hans was a five-year-old boy with a morbid fear of being bitten by a horse.
-Hans’s fear appeared to have stemmed from an incident when he had seen a horse collapse and die in the street.
-However, Freud’s interpretation was that Hans’s fear of being bitten represented his fear of castration
-Freud suggested that Hans had transferred his fear of his father onto horses via the unconscious defence mechanism of displacement.

Question 52

evaluation 1- somewhat support of Oedipus complex (psychoanalytic theory)

Answer 52

-strength
-some support for the role of the Oedipus complex in gender development.
-Rekers and Morey rated the gender identity of 49 boys aged 3-11 years based on interviews with their families and the children themselves.
-Of those who were judged to be ‘gender disturbed’, 75% had neither their biological father nor a substitute father living with them.
-This suggests that being raised with no father may have a negative impact upon gender identity

Question 53

evaluation 2- counterpoint of somewhat support of Oedipus complex (psychoanalytic theory)

Answer 53

-the relationship between absent fathers and problems of gender identity is not supported.
-Bos and Sandfort compared data from 63 children where both parents were lesbians and 68 children from ‘traditional’ families.
-Children raised by lesbian parents felt less pressure to conform to gender stereotypes but there were no differences in terms of psychosocial adjustment or gender identity.
-This contradicts Freud’s theory as it suggests that fathers are not necessary for healthy gender identity development.

Question 54

evaluation 3- female development (psychoanalytic theory)

Answer 54

-limitation
-Freud’s inadequate account of women’s development.
-Freud admitted that women were a mystery to him and his notion of penis envy has been criticised as reflecting the androcentric Victorian era during which he lived where men held so much power.
-Horney argues that a more powerful emotion than penis envy is men’s experience of ‘womb envy’ - a reaction to women’s ability to nurture and sustain life.
-Horney argued that penis envy was a result of cultural rather than biological factors.
-This challenges the idea that women’s gender development is founded on a desire to want to be like a man

Question 55

evaluation 4- pseudoscientific (psychoanalytic theory)

Answer 55

-limitation
-lacks scientific credibility.
-many of Freud’s concepts (such as penis envy) are untestable because they are largely unconscious.
-This contrasts sharply with other explanations of gender that are based on objective, verifiable evidence derived from controlled lab studies.
-According to Popper, this makes Freud’s theory pseudoscientific (not genuine science) as his key ideas cannot be falsified
-This questions the validity of Freud’s theory as it is not based on sound scientific evidence.

Question 56

what is Social learning theory (SLT)

Answer 56

-acknowledges the role that the social context plays in development and states that all behaviour (including gender-related behaviour) is learned from observing others.
-draws attention to the influence of the environment (nurture) in shaping gender development.
-This includes significant others that a child comes into contact with - parents, peers and teachers amongst others - as well as the wider influence of culture and the media

Question 57

indirect reinforcement and example- SLT

Answer 57

-If the consequences of another person’s behaviour are favourable, that behaviour is more likely to be imitated by a child.
-e.g.if a little girl sees her mother receive a compliment when she wears make-up and a pretty dress, the girl may try and repeat this behaviour
-If the consequences of behaviour are seen to be unfavourable, i.e. punished, behaviour is less likely to be imitated.
-e.g. If a little boy sees another boy teased for displaying feminine behaviour, such behaviour is unlikely to be copied.

Question 58

direct reinforcement and example -SLT

Answer 58

-Children are more likely to be reinforced (praised, encouraged) for demonstrating behaviour that is stereotypically gender-appropriate.
-e.g. boys may be encouraged to be active, assertive and engage in rough-and-tumble play and girls are likely to be rewarded for being passive, gentle and staying close to their parent.
-The way in which boys and girls are encouraged to show gender-appropriate behaviour is called differential reinforcement.
-A child is more likely to repeat a behaviour that has been reinforced (rewarded).

Question 59

identification and role models - SLT

Answer 59

-Identification refers to the process whereby a child attaches themself to a person who is seen to be like me or to a person who ‘I want to be.’
-the person possesses qualities that the child sees as desirable.
-These people are known as role models and may be part of the child’s immediate environment (parents, teachers, siblings, etc.) or may be present within the media, such as pop stars or sports stars.
-Role models tend to be attractive, high status and are usually the same gender as the child.

Question 60

modelling- SLT

Answer 60

-modelling is the precise demonstration of a behaviour that may be imitated by an observer.
-A mother may model stereotypically feminine behaviour when tidying the house or preparing dinner

Question 61

Medial processes example with a boy and football player - SLT

Answer 61

-Attention - for instance, a little boy might want to emulate his favourite Premier League footballer by paying close attention to what the footballer does.
-Retention - remembering the skills the footballer showed on the pitch and trying to reproduce these in the playground later with friends.
-Motivation - the desire to repeat the behaviour comes from wanting to be like his hero (identification).
-Motor reproduction - the boy must be physically capable of doing it.

Question 62

evaluation 1- research support (SLT)

Answer 62

-strength
-key principles are supported by evidence.
-Smith and Lloyd involved babies aged 4-6 months who were dressed half the time in boys’ clothes and half the time in girls’ clothes.
- When observed interacting with adults, babies assumed to be a ‘boy’ were more likely to be encouraged to be adventurous and active.
-When the same babies were dressed as girls they were more likely to be handed a cuddly doll, told they were ‘pretty’ and reinforced for being passive.
-This suggests that gender-appropriate behaviour is stamped in at an early age through differential reinforcement

Question 63

evaluation 2- counterpoint of research support (SLT)

Answer 63

-However, differential reinforcement may not be the cause of gender differences in behaviour.
-e.g. the observation that boys are encouraged to be more active during play may be a consequence of the fact that they are naturally more active anyway, due to hormonal differences.
-This suggests that it is likely that social learning is only part of the explanation of how children acquire gender-related behaviours.

Question 64

evaluation 3- cultural changes (SLT)

Answer 64

-strength
-social learning can explain cultural changes in stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour.
-when explaining androgyny, there is a less of a clear-cut distinction between what people regard as stereotypically masculine and feminine behaviour in many societies today than there was in the 1950s.
-The shift in social expectations and cultural norms over the years has meant new forms of gender behaviour are now unlikely to be punished and may be reinforced.
-This shows that social learning is one approach that can explain cultural changes in gender behaviour

Question 65

evaluation 4- no developmental sequence (SLT)

Answer 65

-limitation
-does not provide an adequate explanation of how learning processes change with age.
-The general implication of the social learning approach is that modelling of gender-appropriate behaviour can occur at any age,
-it seems illogical that children who are two years old learn in the same way as children who are nine years old.
-This suggests that influence of age and maturation on learning gender concepts is not a factor considered by social learning theory like it is for Kohlberg’s theory.

Question 66

what are the two factors that have an influence on gender roles

Answer 66

culture and media

Question 67

what is meant by culture

Answer 67

ideas, customs and social behaviour of a particular group of people

Question 68

cultural differences (nurture) - influence of culture on gender roles

Answer 68

-One of the earliest cross-cultural studies of gender roles was carried out by Mead (1935) of cultural groups in Papua New Guinea:
The Arapesh were gentle and responsive (similar to the stereotype of femininity in industrialised societies).
The Mundugumor were aggressive and hostile (similar to the stereotype of masculinity in industrialised societies).
*Tchambuli women were dominant and they organised village life, men were passive and considered to be decorative’ (the reverse of the stereotype in industrialised societies).

-This suggests that there may not be a direct biological relationship between sex and gender, and that gender roles may be culturally determined.

Question 69

cultural differences (cross cultural similarities: nature) - influence of culture on gender roles

Answer 69

-Buss found consistent patterns in mate preference in 37 countries across all continents.
- In all cultures, women sought men who could offer wealth and resources, whilst men looked for youth and physical attractiveness in a potential partner.
-study by Munroe and Munroe revealed that in most societies, division of labour is organised along gender lines with men typically the ‘breadwinners’ and women often the ‘nurturers’.

Question 70

evaluation 1- research support ( influence of culture on gender roles)

Answer 70

-strength
-influence of culture on changing gender roles is supported by evidence.
-Hofstede argues that in industrialised cultures, the changing status and expectations of women are a function of their increasingly active role in the workplace and away from the domestic sphere.
-This has led to a breakdown of traditional stereotypes in advanced industrialised societies.
-In traditional societies women still occupy the role of house-maker as a result of social, cultural and religious pressures.
-This suggests that gender roles are very much determined by cultural context.

Question 71

evaluation 2- Mead’s research criticised ( influence of culture on the gender roles)

Answer 71

-limitation
-Mead’s cross-cultural research has since been criticised.
-accused of making generalisations based on a short period of study.
-Freeman argued that Mead’s findings were flawed as she had been misled by some of her participants, and that her preconceptions of what she would find had influenced her reading of events.
-This is an example of both observer bias and ethnocentrism.
-This suggests that Mead’s interpretations may not have been objective and calls into question the conclusions that she drew.

Question 72

what is meant by media

Answer 72

communication channels such as TV, film and books, through which news and education are made available

Question 73

the media provide ……. ………. with whom children may ………… and want to ………….

Answer 73

1. role models
2. identify
3. imitate

Question 74

rigid stereotypes- media and gender roles

Answer 74

-media do provide very clear gender stereotypes that are quite rigid - men are independent, ambitious advice-givers, whereas women are depicted as dependent, unambitious ‘advice-seekers’ (Bussey and Bandura 1999).
-Similarly, a study of TV adverts by Furnham and Farragher found that men were more likely to be shown in within professional contexts whereas women were often seen occupying familial roles within domestic settings.
-This suggests that the media may play a role in reinforcing widespread social stereotypes concerning gender-appropriate behaviour.

Question 75

self efficacy- media and gender roles

Answer 75

-give information to men and women in terms of the likely success, or otherwise, of adopting these behaviours.
-Seeing other people perform gender-appropriate behaviours increases a child’s belief that they are capable of carrying out such behaviours in the future (what Bandura referred to as self-efficacy).
-One study analysed the attitudes of people in India who had watched a programme designed to challenge deep-rooted gender stereotypes which was a detective drama that ran for 78 episodes.
-Girls who watched the programme were more likely to see themselves as capable of working outside the home than non-viewers.
-This suggests their self-efficacy had changed as a result of media influence.

Question 76

evaluation 1- cultivation theory ( influence of media on gender roles)

Answer 76

-strength of research into media influence on gender roles is it has a theoretical basis.
-Cultivation theory argues that the more time individuals spend living’ in the media world, the more likely they are to believe that this reflects social reality.
-Bond and Drogos found a positive correlation between time spent watching the reality TV programme Jersey Shore and permissive attitudes towards casual sex.
-This suggests the media ‘cultivates’ perception of reality and this affects gender behaviour.

Question 77

evaluation 2- passive recipients ( influence of media on gender roles)

Answer 77

-limitation
-gender roles and the media may not be a causal relationship.
-Durkin argues that even very young children are not passive and uncritical recipients of media messages.
-In fact, norms within the child’s family may be the bigger determinant on the child’s gender attitudes and behaviour.
-This suggests that media influences are secondary to other influences, such as family.

Question 78

what is gender dysphoria

Answer 78

-when a person experiences discomfort or distress because there is a mismatch between their sex and their gender identity.

Question 79

what are the two explanations for atypical gender development

Answer 79

biological and social

Question 80

brain sex theory- biological explanations for atypical gender development

Answer 80

-suggests that gender dysphoria has a basis in brain structure-BST
-This area is larger in men than women and has been found to be female-sized in transgender females
-This leads to the suggestion that people with gender dysphoria have a BST which is the size of the gender they identify with, not the size of their biological sex.
-in Kruijver’s study six transgender individuals showed an average BST neuron number in the female range

Question 81

genetic factors- biological explanations for atypical gender development

Answer 81

-Coolidge assessed 157 twin pairs (96 MZ and 61 DZ) for evidence of gender dysphoria.
-The researchers found that 62% of the variance could be accounted for by genetic factors.
-This suggests there is a strong heritable component to gender dysphoria.

-Similarly, Heylens compared 23 MZ twins with 21 DZ twins where one of each pair was diagnosed with gender dysphoria.
-They found that nine (39%) of the MZ twins were concordant for gender dysphoria compared to none of the DZs which would indicate a role for genetic factors in the development of gender dysphoria.

Question 82

evaluation 1- contradictory evidence for brain sex theory ( biological explanations for atypical development )

Answer 82

-limitation
-its central claims have been challenged.
-Hulshoff studied changes in transgender individuals’ brains using MRI scans taken during hormone treatment. -The scans showed that size of the BST changed significantly over that period.
-This suggests that differences in the BST may have been an effect of hormone therapy, rather than the cause of gender dysphoria.

Question 83

evaluation 2- other brain differences ( biological explanations for atypical development )

Answer 83

-strength
-evidence suggests there may be other brain differences associated with gender dysphoria.
-There are regional differences in the proportion of white matter in male and female brains.
-Rametti analysed the brains of transgender individuals, before they began hormone treatment and found that distribution of white matter corresponded more closely to the gender the individuals identified themselves as
-This suggests that there are early differences in the brains of transgender individuals.

Question 84

social constructionism- social explanations of atypical gender development

Answer 84

-For individuals who experience gender dysphoria, the gender confusion’ arises because society forces people to be either a man or a woman - they must ‘pick a side and act accordingly.
-gender dysphoria is a social phenomenon which arises when people are required to choose one of two particular paths.
-McClintock cites the case of individuals with a genetic condition in the Sambia of New Guinea.
-This causes some biological males to be categorised as girls at birth because they have a labia and a clitoris.
-At puberty their genitals change because of the large increase in testosterone
-This genetic variation is common among the Sambia, and it was routinely accepted that some people are men, some women, and others are females-then-males.

Question 85

psychoanalytic theory- social explanations of atypical gender development

Answer 85

-Ovesey and Person argue that gender dysphoria in biological males is caused by a boy experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established.
-The boy fantasises of a symbiotic fusion with his mother to relieve the anxiety
-The consequence of this is that the boy, becomes the mother and thus adopts a woman’s gender identity.
-Stoller reports that, GD biological males displayed overly close relationships with their mothers suggesting stronger female identification and thus conflicted gender identity in the long term.

Question 86

evaluation 1- social constructionism ( social explanations for atypical development)

Answer 86

-strength
-not all cultures have two genders.
-some cultures recognise more than two genders
-This is a challenge to traditional binary classifications of male and female.
-the fact that increasing numbers of people now describe themselves as non-binary suggests that cultural understanding is only now beginning to ‘catch up with the lived experience of many.
-This suggests that gender dysphoria is best seen as a social construction rather than a biological fact.

Question 87

evaluation 2- psychoanalytic theory ( social explanations for atypical development)

Answer 87

-limitation
-there are issues with the psychoanalytic theory of gender dysphoria.
-Ovesey and Person’s explanation only applies to transgender women
-Rekers found that gender dysphoria in those assigned male at birth is more likely to be associated with the absence of the father than the tear of separation from the mother.
-This suggests that psychoanalytic theory does not provide a comprehensive account of gender dysphoria.