forensic psychology

Question 1

offender profiling

Answer 1

a behavioural and analytical tool that is intended to help investigators accurately predict and profile the characteristics of unknown offender

Question 2

what are the two types of offending profiles

Answer 2

top down and bottom up approach

Question 3

the top down approach

Answer 3

profilers start with a pre established typology and work down to lower levels in order to assign offenders to one of two categories based on witness account and evidence of crime scene

Question 4

what are the two types of offenders

Answer 4

organised and disorganised

Question 5

who are organised offenders

Answer 5

offender who shows evidence of planning,targets a specific victim and tends to be socially and sexually competent with higher than average intelligence

Question 6

who are disorganised offenders

Answer 6

offender who shows little evidence of planning,leave clues and tends to be socially and sexually incompetent with lower than average intelligence

Question 7

how to construct an FBI profile

Answer 7

1.data assimilation- review of evidence (crime scene photos,witness reports etc)
2.crime scene classification- either organised or disorganised
3.crime reconstruction- hypotheses in terms of sequence of events,behaviour of victim etc
4.profile generation- hypotheses related to the likely offender like physical characteristics

Question 8

evaluation 1- research support( top down approach)

Answer 8

-strength
-Canter et al. conducted an analysis of 100 US murders each committed by a different serial killer.
-analysis was used in order to assess the co-occurrence of 39 aspects of serial killings.
-This analysis revealed that there does seem to be features of many serial killings which matched the FBI’s typology for organised offenders.
-This suggests that a key component of the FBI typology approach has some validity.

Question 9

evaluation 2- counterpoint of research support( top down approach)

Answer 9

-There are a variety of combinations that occur at any given murder scene.
-e.g. Godwin argues that it is difficult to classify killers as one or the other type.
-A killer may have multiple contrasting characteristics, such as high intelligence but commits a spontaneous murder leaving the victim’s body at the crime scene.
-This suggests that the organised-disorganised typology is probably more of a continuum.

Question 10

evaluation 3- wider application ( top down approach)

Answer 10

-strength
-it can be adapted to other kinds of crime, such as burglary.
-Meketa reports that top-down profiling has recently been applied to burglary, leading to an 85% rise in solved cases in three US states.
-The detection method also adds two new categories: interpersonal (offender usually knows their victim and steals something of significance) and opportunistic (generally inexperienced young offender).
-This suggests that top-down profiling has wider application than was originally assumed.

Question 11

evaluation 4-flawed evidence ( top down approach)

Answer 11

-limitation
-flaw on the evidence it is based on.
-FBI profiling was developed using interviews with 36 murderers in the US
-Canter et al. have argued that the sample was poor
-the FBI agents did not select a random or even a large sample nor did the sample include different kinds of offender.
-There was no standard set of questions so each interview was different and therefore not really comparable.
-This suggests that top-down profiling does not have a sound, scientific basis.

Question 12

what is the bottom up approach

Answer 12

profilers work up from evidence collected from the crime scene to develop hypotheses about likely characteristics, motivations and social background of offender

Question 13

Investigative psychology- bottom up approach

Answer 13

-The aim, in relation to offender profiling, is to establish patterns of behaviour that are likely to occur across crime scenes.
-This is in order to develop a statistical database which then acts as a baseline for comparison.
-Specific details of an offence, or related offences, can then be matched against this database to reveal important details about the offender, their personal history, family background, etc.
-This may also determine whether a series of offences are linked in that they are likely to have been committed by the same person.
-Central to the approach is the concept of interpersonal coherence - that the way an offender behaves at the scene, including how they ‘interact with the victim, may reflect their behaviour in more everyday situations.
- e.g. some rapists want to maintain maximum control and humiliate their victims, others are more apologetic (Dwyer ).
-This might tell police something about how the offender relates to women more generally.

Question 14

Geographical profiling- bottom up approach

Answer 14

-Geographical profiling uses information about the location of linked crime scenes to make inferences about the likely home or operational base of an offender - known as crime mapping and based on the principle of spatial consistency (that people commit crimes within a limited geographical space).
- Canter’s circle theory (Canter and Larkin ) state the pattern of offending forms a circle around the offender’s home base.
- distribution of offences leads us to describe an offender in one of two ways:
The marauder - who operates in close proximity to their home base.
The commuter - who is likely to have travelled a distance away from their usual residence.

Question 15

evaluation 1- evidence for investigative psychology ( bottom up approach)

Answer 15

• strength of investigative psychology
• evidence supports its use.
• Canter and Heritage conducted an analysis of 66 sexual assault cases.
  -The data was examined using smallest space analysis
  -Several behaviours were identified as common in different samples of behaviour, such as the use of impersonal language and lack of reaction to the victim.
  -Each individual displayed a characteristic pattern of such behaviours and this can help establish whether two or more offences were committed by the same person.
  -This supports one of the basic principles of investigative psychology (and the bottom-up approach) that people are consistent in their behaviour.

Question 16

evaluation 2- counterpoint of evidence for investigative psychology ( bottom up approach)

Answer 16

-However, case linkage depends on the database and this will only consist of historical crimes that have been solved.
- The fact that they were solved may be because it was relatively straightforward to link these crimes together in the first place.
-Which makes this a circular argument.
- This suggests that investigative psychology may tell us little about crimes that have few links between them and therefore remain unsolved.

Question 17

evaluation 3-evidence for geographical profiling ( bottom up approach)

Answer 17

-strength
-evidence to support geographical profiling
-Lundrigan and Canter collated information from 120 murder cases involving serial killers in the US.
-Smallest space analysis revealed spatial consistency in the behaviour of the killers.
-The location of each body disposal site created a centre of gravity when
-offenders start from their home base and may go in a different direction each time they dispose of a body, but in the end all these different sites create a circular effect around the home base
-The effect was more noticeable for offenders who travelled short distances (marauders).
-This supports the view that geographical information can be used to identify an offender.

Question 18

evaluation 4- geographical information insufficient ( bottom up approach)

Answer 18

• limitation
  -geographical profiling may not be sufficient on its own.
  -the success of geographical profiling may be reliant on the quality of data that the police can provide.
• recording of crime is not always accurate, can vary between police forces and an estimated 75% of crimes are not even reported to police in the first place
• Even if this information is correct, critics claim that other factors are just as important in creating a profile, such as the timing of the offence and the age and experience of the offender (Ainsworth ).
  -This suggests that geographical information alone may not always lead to the successful capture of an offender.

Question 19

what are the three biological explanations for offending

Answer 19

atavistic form,genetic and neural

Question 20

Historical approach-atavistic form

Answer 20

• Lombroso wrote a book in which he suggested that criminals were genetic throwbacks’ - a primitive subspecies who were biologically different from non-criminals.

Question 21

biological approach- atavistic form

Answer 21

• Lombroso saw offending behaviour as a natural tendency, rooted in the genes of those who engage in it.
• At the time he was writing, Lombroso was proposing a new perspective - that offending behaviour was innate and therefore an offender was not to blame for his actions.
  -In this way, his ideas were revolutionary

Question 22

atavistic form and characteristics

Answer 22

-offenders had particular physiological ‘markers’ that were linked to particular types of offence.
-These are biologically determined ‘atavistic’ characteristics, mainly features of the face and head that make offenders physically different from the rest
-In terms of cranial (skull) characteristics, the atavistic form included a narrow, sloping brow, a strong prominent jaw, high cheekbones and facial asymmetry.
-Other physical markers included dark skin and the existence of extra toes, nipples or fingers.
-Lombroso suggested there were other aspects of the born offender including insensitivity to pain, use of slang, tattoos and unemployment

Question 23

offender types- atavistic form

Answer 23

• Murderers were described as having bloodshot eyes, curly hair and long ears
• sexual deviants had glinting eyes, swollen, fleshy lips and projecting ear
  -lips of fraudsters were thin and reedy

Question 24

lombroso’s research- atavistic form

Answer 24

-Lombroso examined the skulls of 383 dead convicts and 3839 living ones
-40% of criminal acts were committed by people with atavistic characteristics.

Question 25

evaluation 1- Lombroso’s legacy (atavistic form)

Answer 25

• strength
  -his work changed the face of the study of crime.
  -he has been hailed as the father of modern criminology
• He shifted the emphasis in crime research away from a moralistic discourse towards a more scientific position ( genetics )
• in trying to describe how particular types of people are likely to commit particular types of crime, Lombroso’s theory heralded the beginning of offender profiling of criminology.
  -This suggests that Lombroso made a major contribution to the science of criminology

Question 26

evaluation 2-counterpoint of Lombroso’s legacy (atavistic form)

Answer 26

• several critics, including DeLisi, have questioned whether Lombroso’s legacy is entirely positive.
  -it has racist undertones
• Many of the features that Lombroso identified as atavistic (curly hair, dark skin) are most likely to be found among people of African descent.
  -he is suggesting that Africans were more likely to be offenders, a view that fitted 19th-century eugenic attitudes.
  -This suggests that some aspects of his theory were influenced by racial prejudices of the time.

Question 27

evaluation 3- contradictory evidence (atavistic form)

Answer 27

-limitation
-evidence contradicts the link between atavism and crime.
- Goring conducted a comparison between 3000 offenders and 3000 non-offenders and concluded that there was no evidence that offenders are a distinct group with unusual facial and cranial characteristics
-but suggested that many people who commit crime have lower-than-average intelligence.
-This challenges the idea that offenders can be physically distinguished from the rest of the population and are therefore unlikely to be a subspecies.

Question 28

evaluation 4- poor control (atavistic form)

Answer 28

-limitation
-Lombroso failed to control important variables within his research.
-Unlike Goring, he did not compare his offender sample with a non-offender control group.
-This could have controlled for an assortment of confounding variables that might have equally explained higher crime rates in certain groups of people. -e.g.research has demonstrated links between crime and social conditions such as poverty and poor educational outcomes (Hay and Forrest)
-This suggests that Lombroso’s research does not meet modern scientific standards

Question 29

what do genetic explanations for crime suggest

Answer 29

suggest that would-be offenders inherit a gene that predispose them to commit crime

Question 30

twin and adoptions studies- genetic explanations for crime

Answer 30

-Christiansen studied over 3500 twin pairs in Denmark, and found concordance rates for offender behaviour of 35% for identical twin (MZ) males and 13% for non-identical twin (DZ) males
-This data indicates that it is not just the behaviour that might be inherited but the underlying predisposing traits.
-Crowe found that adopted children whose biological mother had a criminal record had a 50% risk of having a criminal record by the age of 18, whereas adopted children whose biological mother didn’t have a criminal record only had a 5% risk.

Question 31

candidate genes- genetic explanations for crime

Answer 31

-A genetic analysis of almost 800 Finnish offenders by Tihonen et al suggested that two genes (MAOA and CDH13) may be associated with violent crime.
-The MAOA gene regulates serotonin in the brain and has been linked to aggressive behaviour
-CDH13 gene has been linked to substance abuse and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
-The analysis found that about 5-10% of all severe violent crime in Finland is attributable to the MAOA and CDH13 genotypes.

Question 32

diathesis stress model- genetic explanations for crime

Answer 32

-A tendency towards offending behaviour may come about through the combination of genetic predisposition and biological or psychological trigger
-e.g. being raised in a dysfunctional environment or having criminal role models.

Question 33

evaluation 1- issues with twin studies ( genetic explanations for crime)

Answer 33

-limitation
-It is assumed by researchers studying twins that environmental factors are held constant because twins are brought up together and therefore must experience similar environments.
-However, this shared environment assumption may apply much more to MZ twins than DZ twins because MZ twins look identical and people tend to treat them more similarly which, in turn, affects their behaviour.
-Therefore higher concordance rates for MZs in twin studies may simply be because they are treated much more similarly than DZ twins.

Question 34

evaluation 2- support for diathesis stress ( genetic explanations for crime)

Answer 34

-strength
-support for the diathesis-stress model of offending.
-A study of 13,000 Danish adoptees was conducted by Mednick et al and when neither the biological nor adoptive parents had convictions, the percentage of adoptees that did was 13.5%
- This figure rose to 20% when either of the biological parents had convictions
-24.5% when both adoptive and biological parents had convictions.
-This shows that genetic inheritance plays an important role in offending but environmental influence is clearly also important, providing support for the diathesis-stress model of crime.

Question 35

what do neural explanations of crime suggest

Answer 35

that there may be differences in brain structures and neurotransmitters of offenders and non offenders

Question 36

prefrontal cortex- neural explanations for crime

Answer 36

-Raine demonstrated that individuals with antisocial personalities have reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex, the part of the brain that regulates emotional behaviour.
-also Raine and his colleagues found an 11% reduction in the volume of grey matter in the prefrontal cortex of people with APD compared to controls.

Question 37

mirror neurons - neural explanations for crime

Answer 37

-Keysers found that only when offenders were asked to empathise did their empathy reaction (controlled by mirror neurons ) activate.
-This suggests that APD individuals are not totally without empathy, but may have a neural ‘switch’ that can be turned on and off, unlike the ‘normal’ brain which has the empathy switch permanently on

Question 38

evaluation 1- brain evidence ( neural explanations for crime)

Answer 38

-strength
-there’s support for the link between crime and the frontal lobe.
-Kandel and Freed reviewed evidence of people with frontal lobe damage who tended to show impulsive behaviour, emotional instability and an inability to learn from their mistakes.
-The frontal lobe is associated with planning behaviour.
-This supports the idea that brain damage may be a causal factor in offending behaviour.

Question 39

evaluation 2- intervening variables ( neural explanations for crime )

Answer 39

-limitation
-link between neural differences and APD may be complex.
-Farrington et al studied a group of men who scored high on psychopathy (APD).
-These individuals had experienced various risk factors during childhood, such as being raised by a convicted parent and being physically neglected.
-It could be that these early childhood experiences caused APD and also some of the neural differences associated with it - such as reduced activity in the frontal lobe due to trauma (Rauch et al. 2006).
-This suggests that the relationship between neural differences, APD and offending is complex

Question 40

what are the psychological explanations for crime

Answer 40

-Eysenck’s theory ( criminal personality)
-cognitive: levels of moral reasoning and cognitive distortions
-Differential association theory ( DAT)
-psychodynamic

Question 41

what is the criminal personality

Answer 41

-a feature of Eysenck’s theory of crime
-an individual who scores high on extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism is cold and unfeeling
-and is likely to engage in offending behaviour

Question 42

why are extraverts more likely to offend

Answer 42

-have an underactive nervous system which means they constantly seek excitement, stimulation and are likely to engage in risk-taking behaviours.
-They also tend not to condition easily and therefore do not learn from their mistakes.

Question 43

why are neurotic individuals more likely to offend

Answer 43

-have a high level of reactivity in the sympathetic nervous system - they respond quickly to situations of threat (fight or flight).
-This means they tend to be nervous, jumpy and overanxious, and their general instability means their behaviour is often difficult to predict.

Question 44

why are psychotic individuals more likely to offend

Answer 44

individuals are suggested to have higher levels of testosterone and are unemotional and prone to aggression.

Question 45

the role of socialisation- criminal personality

Answer 45

-personality is linked to offending behaviour via socialisation processes.
-Eysenck saw offending behaviour as developmentally immature :selfish and concerned with immediate gratification - offenders are impatient and cannot wait for things.
-The process of socialisation is one in which children are taught to become more able to delay gratification and more socially oriented.
- Eysenck believed that people with high E and N scores had nervous systems that made them difficult to condition
- As a result, they are less likely to learn anxiety responses to antisocial impulses

Question 46

measuring the criminal personality

Answer 46

He developed the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) which locates respondents along the E, N and P dimensions to determine their personality type.

Question 47

evaluation 1- research support (Eysenck’s criminal personality)

Answer 47

• strength
• there is evidence to support the criminal personality.
  -Eysenck compared 2070 prisoners’ scores on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) with 2422 controls.
  -On measures of extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism prisoners recorded higher average scores than controls.
  -This agrees with the predictions of the theory that offenders rate higher than average across the three dimensions Eysenck identified.

Question 48

evaluation 2- counterpoint of research support (Eysenck’s criminal personality)

Answer 48

-However, Farrington et al conducted a meta-analysis of relevant studies and reported that offenders tended to score high on measures of psychoticism, but not for extraversion and neuroticism.
-There is also inconsistent evidence of differences on EEG measures between extraverts and introverts which casts doubt on the physiological basis of Eysenck’s theory.
-This means some of the central assumptions of the criminal personality have been challenged.

Question 49

evaluation 3- too simplistic (Eysenck’s criminal personality)

Answer 49

• limitation
  -offending behaviour cannot be explained by personality traits alone
• Moffitt argued that personality traits alone were a poor predictor of how long offending behaviour would go on for, in the sense of whether someone is likely to become a career offender.
  -She considered persistence in offending behaviour to be the result of individual personality traits and environmental reactions to those traits
  -This presents a more complex picture that offending behaviour is determined by an interaction between personality and the environment.

Question 50

evaluation 4- cultural factors (Eysenck’s criminal personality)

Answer 50

-limitation
-cultural factors are not taken into account.
- Bartol and Holanchock studied Hispanic and African-American offenders In a maximum security prison in New York.
-The researchers divided these offenders into six groups based on their offending history and the nature of their offences.
-It was found that all six groups were less extravert than a non-offender control group
-This questions how far the criminal personality can be generalised and suggests it may be a culturally relative concept.

Question 51

what are the two cognitive explanations for psychological explanations of offending

Answer 51

-levels of moral reasoning
-cognitive distortions

Question 52

what is meant by levels of moral reasoning

Answer 52

-moral reasoning refers to the way a person thinks about the rights and wrong
-the higher the level, the more that behaviour is driven by a sense of what is right and the lower the level, it is driven more by just avoiding punishment

Question 53

moral development- level of moral reasoning

Answer 53

-Kohlberg proposed that people’s decisions and judgements on issues of right and wrong can be summarised in a stage theory of moral reasoning - the higher the stage, the more sophisticated the reasoning.
-Many studies have suggested that offenders tend to show a lower level of moral reasoning than non-offenders.
-Kohlberg et al, using his moral dilemmas, found that a group of violent youths were at a significantly lower level of moral development than non-violent youths - even after controlling for social background.

Question 54

moral development linked with criminality- levels of moral reasoning

Answer 54

-Offenders are more likely to be classified at the pre-conventional level of Kohlberg’s model (stages 1 and 2)
-non-offenders have generally progressed to the conventional level and beyond.
-The pre-conventional level is characterised by a need to avoid punishment and gain rewards, and is associated with less mature, childlike reasoning.
-people who reason at this level may commit crime if they can get away with it or gain rewards
-Individuals who reason at higher levels tend to sympathise more with the rights of others and exhibit more conventional behaviours such as honesty, generosity and non-violence.

Question 55

evaluation 1- research support ( levels of moral reasoning)

Answer 55

• strength
  -evidence for the link between level of moral reasoning and crime.
  -Palmer and Hollin compared moral reasoning in 332 non-offenders and 126 convicted offenders using the Socio Moral Reflection Measure Short Form (SRM-SF) which contains 11 moral dilemma-related questions
  -The offender group showed less mature moral reasoning than the non-offender group.
  -This is consistent with Kohlberg’s predictions.

Question 56

evaluation 2- type of offence ( levels of moral reasoning)

Answer 56

-limitation
-level of moral reasoning may depend on the offence.
-Thornton and Reid found that people who committed crimes for financial gain were more likely to show pre-conventional moral reasoning than those convicted of impulsive crimes
-Pre-conventional moral reasoning tends to be associated with crimes in which offenders believe they have a good chance of evading punishment.
-This suggests that Kohlberg’s theory may not apply to all forms of crime.

Question 57

what is meant by cognitive distortions

Answer 57

faulty, biased and irrational ways of thinking that mean we perceive ourselves or the world inaccurately and usually negatively

Question 58

what are two examples of cognitive distortions

Answer 58

hostile attribution bias and minimisation

Question 59

hostile attribution- cognitive distortions

Answer 59

-hostile attribution bias is the tendency to judge ambiguous situations, or actions of others, as aggressive when in reality they are not
-Schönenberg and Jusyte presented 55 violent offenders with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions.
-When compared with a non-aggressive matched control group, the violent offenders were significantly more likely to perceive the images as angry and hostile.

Question 60

minimisation- cognitive distortions

Answer 60

-Minimalisation is an attempt to deny or downplay the seriousness of an offence
- Studies suggest that individuals who commit sexual offences are particularly prone to minimalisation.
-Barbaree found among 26 incarcerated rapists, 54% denied they had committed an offence at all and a further 40% minimised the harm they had caused to the victim.

Question 61

evaluation 1- real world application (cognitive distortions)

Answer 61

-strength
-has application to therapy.
-Cognitive behaviour therapy aims to challenge irrational thinking.
-offenders are encouraged to ‘face up’ to what they have done and establish a less distorted view of their actions.
-Studies (e.g. Harkins et al) suggest that reduced incidence of denial and minimalisation in therapy is highly associated with a reduced risk of reoffending
-This suggests that the theory of cognitive distortions has practical value.

Question 62

evaluation 2- type of offence (cognitive distortions)

Answer 62

-limitation
-level of cognitive distortion depends on the type of offence.
-Howitt and Sheldon gathered questionnaire responses from sexual offenders and found that non-contact sex offenders used more cognitive distortions than contact sex offenders
-Those who had a previous history of offending were also more likely to use distortions as a justification.
-This suggests that distortions are not used in the same way by all offenders.

Question 63

what is the differential association theory

Answer 63

an explanation for offending which proposes that through interaction with others, individuals learn the values, techniques and attitudes for offending behaviour

Question 64

offending as a learned behaviour- DAT

Answer 64

-Offending arises from two factors:
*Learning attitudes
-When a person is socialised into a group they will be exposed to values and attitudes towards the law.
-Some of these values will be pro-crime or anti-crime.
-Sutherland argues that if the number of pro-criminal attitudes the person comes to acquire outweighs the number of anti-criminal attitudes, they will go on to offend.
*Learning techniques
- would-be offender may learn particular techniques for committing offences.
-These might include how to break into someones house through a locked window or how to disable a car stereo before stealing it.

Question 65

socialisation in prison- DAT

Answer 65

-It is reasonable to assume that whilst inside prison inmates will learn specific techniques of offending from other, more experienced offenders that they may put into practice upon their release.
-This learning may occur through observational learning and imitation or direct tuition from offending peers.

Question 66

evaluation 1- shift of focus ( DAT)

Answer 66

• strength
  -it changed the focus of offending explanations.
  -Sutherland was successful in moving the emphasis away from early biological accounts of offending and theories that explained offending as being the product of individual weakness or immorality.
  -DAT draws attention to the fact that deviant social circumstances and environments may be more to blame for offending than deviant people.
  -This approach is more desirable because it offers a more realistic solution to the problem of offending instead of eugenics or punishment

Question 67

evaluation 2- counterpoint of shift of focus (DAT)

Answer 67

-differential association runs the risk of stereotyping individuals who come from impoverished, crime-ridden backgrounds as ‘unavoidably offenders’
-the theory tends to suggest that exposure to pro-crime values is sufficient to produce offending in those who are exposed to it.
-This ignores the fact that people may choose not to offend despite such influences, as not everyone who is exposed to pro-crime attitudes goes on to offend.

Question 68

evaluation 3- wide reach (DAT)

Answer 68

• strength
  -theory can account for offending within all sectors of society.
  -Sutherland recognised that some types of offence, such as burglary, may be clustered within certain inner-city, working-class communities
  -but was also interested in so-called ‘white-collar’ offences and how this may be a feature of middle-class social groups who share deviant norms and values.
  -This shows that it is not just the lower’ classes who commit offences and that the principles of differential association can be used to explain all offences.

Question 69

evaluation 4- difficulty testing (DAT)

Answer 69

-limitation
-it is difficult to test the predictions of differential association.
-many of the concepts are not testable because they cannot be operationalised.
-e.g. it is hard to see how the number of pro-crime attitudes a person has, or has been exposed to, could be measured.
-also, the theory is built on the assumption that offending behaviour will occur when pro-crime values outnumber anti-crime ones.
- Without being able to measure these, we cannot know at what point the urge to offend is realised and the offending career triggered.
-This means the theory does not have scientific credibility.

Question 70

what is the psychodynamic explanation for offending

Answer 70

a perspective that describes the different forces that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience

Question 71

the inadequate superego and the three types - psychodynamic explanation

Answer 71

-Blackburn argued that if the Superego is somehow deficient or inadequate then offending behaviour is inevitable because the Id is given ‘free rein’ and not properly controlled.

-Three types of inadequate Superego have been proposed:
1-The weak Superego - if the same-gender parent is absent during the phallic stage, a child cannot internalise a fully-formed Superego as there is no opportunity for identification.
2-The deviant Superego - if the Superego that a child internalises has immoral or deviant values this would lead to offending behaviour .e.g. a boy who is raised by a criminal father is not likely to associate guilt with wrongdoing.
3. The over-harsh Superego - overly harsh parenting style leads to a child with an over-harsh Superego who is crippled by guilt and anxiety. This may drive the individual to perform criminal acts in order to satisfy the Superego’s overwhelming need for punishment.

Question 72

theory of maternal deprivation- psychodynamic explanation

Answer 72

-Bowlby argued that the ability to form meaningful relationships in adulthood was dependent upon the child forming a warm, continuous relationship with a mother-figure.
-Failure to do so means a child is likely to experience a number of damaging and irreversible consequences in later life.
-One of these is the development of affectionless psychopathy (characterised by a lack of guilt, empathy and feeling for others.)
-Such maternally deprived individuals are likely to engage in acts of delinquency and cannot develop close relationships with others.

Question 73

what study could be used for evidence of maternal deprivation and affectionless psychopathy

Answer 73

Bowlby and 44 juvenile thieves

Question 74

evaluation 1- research support ( psychodynamic explanation of offending)

Answer 74

-strength
- research support
-Goreta conducted a Freudian-style analysis of ten offenders referred for psychiatric treatment.
-In all those assessed, disturbances in Superego formation were diagnosed.
-Each offender experienced unconscious feelings of guilt and the need for self-punishment.
-Goreta explained this as a consequence of an over-harsh Superego
-This evidence seems to support an over-harsh Superego as a basis for offending.

Question 75

evaluation 2- counterpoint of research support ( psychodynamic explanation of offending)

Answer 75

-however, if this theory were correct we would expect harsh, punitive parents to raise children who constantly experience feelings of guilt and anxiety.
-Parents who rely on harsher forms of discipline tend to raise children who are rebellious and rarely express feelings of guilt or self-criticism (Kochanska et al.).
-This calls into question the relationship between a strong, punitive internal parent and excessive feelings of guilt within the child.

Question 76

evaluation 3- gender bias ( psychodynamic explanation of offending)

Answer 76

-limitation
-it is gender-biased.
-Freud’s theory states that girls develop a weaker Superego than boys because identification with the same-gender parent is not as strong due to not experiencing castration anxiety
-Therefore, according to Freud, their Superego ( their sense of morality) is less fully realised.
-however, rates of imprisonment show that in the UK about 20 times more men are in prison than women.
-This suggests there is alpha bias at the heart of Freud’s theory and means it may not be appropriate as an explanation of offending behaviour.

Question 77

evaluation 4- other factors ( psychodynamic explanation of offending)

Answer 77

-limitation
-Bowlby’s theory is only based on an association between maternal deprivation and offending
-Lewis analysed data drawn from interviews with 500 young people and found that maternal deprivation was a poor predictor of future offending and the ability to form close relationships in adolescence.
-There are countless other reasons for this apparent link, e.g. the maternal deprivation may be due to growing up in poverty - and this might then explain later offending.
-This suggests that maternal deprivation may be one of the reasons for later offending behaviour, but not the only reason.

Question 78

what are the four ways of dealing with offending behaviour

Answer 78

custodial sentencing, behaviour modification in custody, anger management and restorative justice

Question 79

what is custodial sentencing

Answer 79

a decision made by a court that punishment for a crime should involve time being in ‘custody”

Question 80

what are the 4 aims of custodial sentencing and elaborate on them

Answer 80

1.Deterrence
-The unpleasant prison experience is designed to put off the individual from engaging in offending behaviour.
-general deterrence aims to send a broad message to members of a given society that crime will not be tolerated.
-Individual deterrence should prevent the individual from repeating the same offences in light of their experience.
- based on the behaviourist idea of conditioning through vicarious punishment.
2.Incapacitation
-The offender is taken out of society to prevent them reoffending as a means of protecting the public.
-The need for incapacitation is likely to depend upon the severity of the offence and the nature of the offender.
3.Retribution
-Society is enacting revenge for the offence by making the offender suffer, and the level of suffering should be proportionate to the seriousness of the offence.
-This is based on the biblical notion of an eye for an eye, that the offender should in some way pay for their actions.
4.Rehabilitation
- many people would see the main objective of prison as not being purely to punish, but to reform.
-offenders should leave prison better adjusted and ready to take their place back in society.
-Prison should provide opportunities to develop skills and training or to access treatment programmes

Question 81

what are the 3 psychological effects of custodial sentencing and elaborate on them

Answer 81

-Stress and depression- Suicide rates are considerably higher in prison than in the general population, as are incidents of self-mutilation and self-harm.
-Institutionalisation -Having adapted to the norms and routines of prison life, inmates may become so accustomed to these that they are no longer able to function on the outside.
-Prisonisation -Refers to the way in which prisoners are socialised into adopting an ‘inmate code’. Behaviour that may be considered unacceptable in the outside world may be encouraged and rewarded inside the walls of the institution.

Question 82

what is meant by recidivism- custodial sentencing

Answer 82

reoffending, a tendency to relapse into a previous condition or mode of behaviour

Question 83

the problem of recidivism- custodial sentencing

Answer 83

-In recent years the UK figure for reoffending has been about 45% (based on Ministry of Justice figures).
-The US, Australia and Denmark regularly record rates in excess of 60%
- In Norway rates may be as low as 20%
-This last figure is significant because in Norway there is less emphasis on incarceration and greater emphasis on rehabilitation

Question 84

evaluation 1- psychological effects ( custodial sentencing)

Answer 84

-limitation
-has negative psychological effect on prisoners.
-Bartol has suggested that, for many offenders, imprisonment can be brutal, demeaning and generally devastating.
- According to the Ministry of Justice a record 119 people killed themselves in prisons in England and Wales in 2016 - an increase of 29 (32%) on the previous year (The Guardian 2017).
- Prison Reform Trust found that 25% of women and 15% of men in prison reported symptoms of psychosis (e.g. schizophrenia).
-This supports the view that oppressive prison regimes may be detrimental to psychological health which could impact on rehabilitation.

Question 85

evaluation 2- counterpoint of psychological effects ( custodial sentencing)

Answer 85

-figures in the Prison Reform Trust study above do not include the number of inmates who were experiencing psychotic symptoms before they were incarcerated.
-Many of those convicted may have pre-existing psychological and emotional difficulties at the time they were convicted
-This suggests there may be confounding variables that influence the link between prison and its psychological effects.

Question 86

evaluation 3- training and treatment ( custodial sentencing)

Answer 86

-strength
-provides opportunity for training and treatment.
-One objective of imprisonment is rehabilitation - offenders may become better people during their time in prison
-many offenders access education and training whilst in prison increasing the possibility they will find employment upon release.
-The Vera Institute of Justice (Shirley 2019) claims that offenders who take part in college education programmes are 43% less likely to reoffend following release
-This suggests prison may be a worthwhile experience assuming offenders are able to access these programmes.

Question 87

evaluation 4- school for crime ( custodial sentencing)

Answer 87

-limitation
-offenders may learn to become better offenders.
-Incarceration with long-term offenders may give younger inmates in the opportunity to learn the tricks of the trade from more experienced prisoners.
-Offenders may also acquire criminal contacts whist in prison that they may follow up when they are released.
-This form of education’ may undermine attempts to rehabilitate prisoners and consequently may make reoffending more likely.

Question 88

what is meant by behaviour modification in custody

Answer 88

-an applications of the behaviourist approach to treatment
-based on the principles of operant conditioning
-general aim is to replace undesirable behaviours with more desirable ones through the use of positive/negative reinforcement

Question 89

token economy- behaviour modification in custody

Answer 89

• based on operant conditioning.
  -Within the walls of a prison, desirable behaviour may include avoiding confrontation, following prison rules,etc
  -In a token economy, prisoners are given a token each time they perform a desirable behaviour.
  -Each of these behaviours and rewards would be made clear to the prisoners before the programme is implemented.
  -It would also be emphasised that non-compliance, or disobedience, may result in the tokens being removed
  -Tokens act as secondary reinforcers.
  -In a prison the tokens might be exchanged for a phone call to a loved one, time in the gym or exercise yard, extra cigarettes or food
  -rewards are primary reinforcers

Question 90

Designing and using a token economy- behaviour modification in custody

Answer 90

*Operationalise target behaviours
- target behaviour is operationalised by breaking it down into component parts.
-e.g. the target behaviour may be improved interaction with other prison inmates.
- This may be broken down into not touching another prisoner as you pass them, speaking politely to others, etc.
-These ‘units of behaviour should be objective and measurable and agreed with prison staff and inmates in advance.
*Scoring system
-Staff and prisoners should also be made aware of the scoring system and how much each particular behaviour is worth.
-Behaviours are hierarchical = some are regarded as more demanding than others so receive greater rewards.
*Train staff-
-it is important that prison staff are given full training in order to implement The token economy system successfully.
-The aim is to standardise the procedures so that all prison staff are rewarding the some behaviours in the same way.
-Staff must also record when they have awarded tokens so the progress of individual prisoners can be assessed.

Question 91

evaluation 1- research support (behaviour modification in custody)

Answer 91

-strength
-has evidence to support it.
-Hobbs and Holt introduced a token economy programme with groups of young offenders across three behavioural units (and a fourth unit acted as a control’).
-They observed a significant difference in positive behaviour compared to the non-token economy group.
-Further, Field et al found a token economy programme used with young people with behavioural problems was generally effective, although there were still a number of young people who did not respond
-when the rewards were more immediate and more frequent and the results were more positive.
-This suggests that token economy systems do work.

Question 92

evaluation 2- counterpoint of research support ( behaviour modification in custody)

Answer 92

-However, the success of such systems does depend on a consistent approach from prison staff.
-Bassett and Blanchard found any benefits were lost if staff applied the techniques inconsistently.
- this was due to factors such as lack of appropriate staff training or high staff turnover
-This suggests that behaviour modification schemes must ensure full and consistent staff participation if they are to work.

Question 93

evaluation 3- easy to implement (behaviour modification in custody)

Answer 93

-strength
- it is relatively straightforward to set up in custody.
-There is no need for a specialist professional to be involved as there would be for other forms of treatment such as anger management
- token economy systems can be designed and implemented by virtually anyone in any institution.
-They are also cost-effective and easy to follow
-This suggests that behaviour modification techniques can be established in most prisons and accessed by most prisoners.

Question 94

evaluation 4- little rehabilitative value (behaviour modification in custody)

Answer 94

-limitation
- may not affect long-term behaviour.
- Blackburn states that behaviour modification has little rehabilitative value and any positive changes in behaviour that may occur whilst an offender is in prison may quickly be lost when they are released
-More cognitive-based treatments, such as anger management, may be more likely to lead to permanent behavioural change.
-offenders can fairly easily play along with a token economy system in order to access the rewards, but this produces little change in their overall character.
-This may explain why, once the token economy is discontinued, an offender may quickly regress back to their former behaviour.

Question 95

what is anger management

Answer 95

-therapeutic programme that involves identifying the signs that trigger anger and how to deal with it
-its aim is not to prevent anger but to recognise it and manage it

Question 96

cognitive behaviour therapy- anger management

Answer 96

-Novaco suggests that cognitive factors trigger the emotional arousal which generally precedes aggressive acts.
- anger management programmes are a form of cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) - the individual is taught how to recognise the cognitive factors that trigger their anger and loss of control, and then encouraged to develop techniques which bring about conflict resolution without the need for violence.

Question 97

three stages of CBT and elaborate on them - anger management

Answer 97

1.Cognitive preparation
-offender reflects on past experience and consider the typical pattern of their anger.
- The offender learns to identify those situations which act as triggers to anger
-therapist’s role is to make it clear that the way the offender interprets some events is irrational
- the therapist is attempting to break what may well be an automatic response for the offender.
2.Skills acquisition
- offenders are introduced to a range of techniques and skills to help them deal with anger-provoking situations more rationally and effectively.
-Techniques may include:
Cognitive - positive self-talk to encourage calmness, counting to ten to temper our reaction to a stressful event
Behavioural - training in how to communicate more effectively
*Physiological - using relaxation training or meditation.
3. Application practice
-offenders are given the opportunity to practise their skills within a carefully controlled environment.
-Such role play is likely to involve the offender and the therapist re-enacting scenarios that may have escalated feelings of anger and acts of violence in the past.

Question 98

positive outcome with young offenders- anger management

Answer 98

-Keen et al. has studied the progress made with young offenders aged between 17 and 21 who took part in a nationally recognised anger management programme.
-Offenders reported increased awareness of their anger management difficulties and an increased capacity to exercise self-control.

Question 99

evaluation 1- better than behaviour modification ( anger management)

Answer 99

-strength
-benefits may outlast those of behaviour modification.
-anger management tries to tackle one of the causes of offending - that is, the cognitive processes that trigger anger, and ultimately, offending behaviour. -Alternative treatments such as behaviour modification deal with only surface behaviour and not the processes that drive such behaviour.
-Experience of anger management may give offenders new insight into the cause of their criminality and allow them to self-discover ways of managing themselves outside of the prison setting.
-This suggests that anger management is more likely than behaviour modification to lead to permanent behavioural change.

Question 100

evaluation 2- counterpoint of better than behaviour modification ( anger management)

Answer 100

-follow-up studies of anger management tend not to support this assumption.
- Blackburn points out that there is very little evidence that it reduces recidivism in the long term.
-This may be because the application phase of treatment still relies on role play which might not properly reflect all the possible triggers that are present in a real-world situation.
-This suggests that, in the end, anger management may not reduce reoffending.

Question 101

evaluation 3- individual differences ( anger management)

Answer 101

-limitation
-success may depend on individual factors.
-Howells et al. found that participation in an anger management programme had little overall impact when compared to a control group who received no treatment.
-However, this was not true for all offenders in the treatment programme.
-Significant progress was made with those offenders who had showed intense levels of anger before the programme and who were open to change
-This suggests that anger management may only benefit offenders who fit a certain profile.

Question 102

evaluation 4- expensive ( anger management)

Answer 102

-limitation
-it is likely to be an expensive option.
-Anger management programmes are expensive to run as they require the services of highly-trained specialists
-many prisons may not have the resources to fund such programmes.
-also the success of anger management is often based on the commitment of those who participate, and this may be a problem if prisoners are uncooperative and apathetic.
- Change takes time and this is ultimately likely to add to the expense of delivering effective programmes.
-This suggests that effective anger management programmes are probably not going to work in most prisons.

Question 103

what is restorative justice

Answer 103

-focuses on the rehabilitation of offenders through reconciliation with the victims
-enables an offender to see the impact of their crime and empowers the survivors

Question 104

what are the key features of the programme- restorative justice

Answer 104

-Trained mediator supervises the meeting.
-Non-courtroom setting where offenders voluntarily meet with survivor
-Can be a face-to-face meeting or conducted remotely via video link.
-The survivor is given the opportunity to confront the offender and explain how the incident affected them. This enables the offender to comprehend the consequences of their actions
-It is important that there is active involvement of all parties in the process
-The focus is on positive outcomes for both survivors and offenders.
-other relevant community members may have a role in the process e.g. friends, family members.etc who may wish to explain the effects of the crime.

Question 105

sentencing and restitution- restorative justice

Answer 105

• It could function alongside a prison sentence, or as an alternative to prison (especially if the offender is young) or to reduce the length of a sentence.
• offender may make some financial restitution to the survivor which may reflect the psychological damage caused or the actual physical damage, in the case of a break-in for instance.
  -Other variations of the scheme may involve the offender repairing damaged property themselves.
  -The offender can support the healing process by repairing and rebuilding the survivor’s confidence or self-esteem.

Question 106

restorative Justice countcil

Answer 106

-The RJC advocates the use of restorative practice beyond dealing with crime. -It can be used in preventing and managing conflict in many areas including schools, children’s services, workplaces, hospitals and communities.

Question 107

evaluation 1- needs of the survival ( restorative justice)

Answer 107

-strength
-evidence suggests it has positive outcomes.
-The Restorative Justice Council reported the results of 85% survivors reporting satisfaction with the process of meeting their offender face-to-face and 78% would recommend it to other people experiencing a similar situation.
-About 60% of survivors felt the process had made them feel better about the incident - enabling them to feel closure and to ‘move on’.
-Only 2% said it had made them feel worse.
-This suggests that restorative justice achieves some of its aims, helping survivors of crime cope with the aftermath of the incident.

Question 108

evaluation 2- counterpoint of needs of the survival ( restorative justice)

Answer 108

-Not all research is overwhelmingly positive.
-Wood and Suzuki argue that restorative processes are not as survivor-focused as often reported in satisfaction surveys.
-the processes can become distorted, such as when survivors of crime are used’ as a way of helping to rehabilitate offenders, rather than being helped themselves.
-This suggests that the needs of the survivor in restorative justice may be seen as secondary to the need to rehabilitate offenders.

Question 109

evaluation 3- recidivism ( restorative justice)

Answer 109

• strength
  -restorative justice seems to lead to a decrease in rates of reoffending
  -Strang et al compared offenders who experienced face-to-face restorative justice schemes with those who just experienced custodial sentencing.
  -The restorative justice group was significantly less likely to reoffend.
  -also Bain found lowered recidivism rates with adult offenders, especially when using one-to-one contact rather than general community involvement.
  -this suggests that restorative justice has a positive impact on reoffending, maybe more so for some types of offence than others and some approaches.

Question 110

evaluation 4- abusing the system ( restorative justice)

Answer 110

-limitation
-offenders may abuse the system.
- Van Gijseghem suggests that offenders may use restorative justice for all kinds of reasons: avoiding punishment, playing down their faults, even taking pride in their relationship with the survivor using direct contact (face-to-face or in writing).
-This would explain why not all offenders ultimately benefit from restorative justice and go on to reoffend.