issues and debate Flashcards
Define Gender bias
differential treatment / representation of men and woman based off of stereotypes rather than real differences
Define Alpha bias
a view that exaggerates the differences between men and woman , suggesting there are real and enduring differences
- not always , but particularly devaluing woman
Examples of alpha bias
psychodynamic explanation : offending behaviour : suggested that criminality is due to a deviant superego
- (Freud) females do not experience castration anxiety therefore are more likely to be less moral than males
Wilsons sociobiological theory of relationship formation : sexual promiscuity in males is seen as genetically determined whereas in females it is going against their “nature”
-(evolutionary) females need to be selective due to limited eggs and energy to reproduce
- prejudice against woman
schizophrenia diagnosis: diagnosed more in men compared to woman
-(cotten et al) woman are more likely to continue working , maintain good interpersonal relationships and show less distress than men
Define Universality
the aim to develop Psychological conclusions that can be applied to everyone, regardless of time or culture:
- Psychologists may possess beliefs and values that are influenced by the social and historical contexts they live in = creates bias in research.
Define Androcentricsm
- when all behaviour is compared to a “male” standard , often neglecting woman experiences
gender bias is a result of Androcentrism
consequence of beta bias
Examples of androcentrism
PMS : (POST MENSTURAL SYNDROME) : has been criticised as being a social construct which minimises the importance of female emotions , particularly anger
- male anger (on the other hand) seen as logical response to external pressures (Breescoll and Uhlman)
Define “Beta bias””
a view that ignores or minimises the differences between men and woman
- studies derived off of males are applied equally to men
Outline examples of beta bias
fight or flight response : exclusively used male lab mice : experience fewer hormonal fluctuations and so change in adrenaline
( could be more reliably measured)
-However the findings were then generalised to females (beta bias) Taylor 2000 contradicts this
Kohlberg’s level of moral reasoning : American males answered questions based on moral dilemmas , which were then generalised to represent levels of moral reasoning for both men and woman
Evaluate 2 strengths of Gender bias
Feminist psychology : social constructionist approach
- accepts that there are biological differences between men and woman which may influence behaviour , however socially determined stereotypes make a far greater contribution to percieved differences
- Androcentrism can be countered by feminist view and balance can be readressed
- e.g (Eagly 1978) acknowledged : woman may be less effective leaders than men : knowledge should be used to develop suitable training programmes : future w more woman leaders
Reverse alpha bias : (development of theories that show greater emphasis on woman)
- Cornwell et al 2013 : woman better at learning
- more attentive , flexible and organised
-challenges stereotype that in any position the male position must be better (preconceptions) which is important in reducing gender bias
Evaluate 2 limitations of gender bias
Bias in research methods :
-research may find differences between genders however : there may be no difference betweeen the genders but rather the method that was used to observe them
-e.g Rosenthal found : male experimenters are more pleasant and encouraing towards female participants : subsequently they perform better in tasks
- (in addition) less senior positions in experiments given to woman: female concerns less likely to be reflected
Assumptions still need to be challenged:
-Gender bias remains unchallenged in many theories e.g Darwins theory of sexual selection
- suggests : males compete to be chosen and woman choose
- view has been challenged : woman are equally as competitive as (females v females) suggested by DNA evidence etc
Define Culture
rules values and morals and ways of interacting that bind together members of a society ( or some group of people)
Cultural bias
view that judges all cultures and individuals in terms of our own cultural assumptions
- this biases the judgement mad
Cultural relativism
view that behaviour ,morals, standards and values cannot be judged properly unless they are viewed within the same context of the culture in which they originated from
Outline an example of cultural relativism
Milgrams study into obedience
originally conducted using 40 male participants
-
Replicated :
MIRANDA ET AL - SPANISH STUDENTS
90% obedience rates in obedience rates
KILHAM AND MANN - AUS STUDENTS
only 16% of female participants continued to the highest voltage setting
suggests Milgrams original results were bound to american cultures only
what can cultural relativism lead to ?
alpha bias: assumptions of real differences lead to psychologists to overlook universals
beta bias - behaviours that are statistically infrequent in one culture may be more frequent in another e.g schizoprenia
Outline examples of culture bias
distinction between individualist and collectivist cultures: (alpha bias)
- assume that individualistic cultures are less conformist as they are more orientated towards group norms and value needs of group more than the individual
e.g TAKANO OSAKA : reviewed 15 studies comparing US and Japan in terms of individualism/collectivist and found 14/15 studies did not support common view ab conformity
- less of a collectivist/individualist divide in global world
IQ tests (beta bias)
-IQ tests intelligence and applies equally to all cultures
western societies : intelligence is within the individual
non-western : intelligence is a functional relationship depending on shared info between individual and society
- non western people deemed as less intelligent
Emic approach
- look at behaviour from inside of cultural system
- emphasises distinction of uniqueness in every culture
-findings are only specific for that culture
Etic approach
- looking at behaviours from outside of culture
- seeks universal aspects of behaviour
Define “ethnocentrism” and example
Judging other peoples culture based on our own values and our own culture
- Our own culture perspective is taken as a standard by which we measure other cultures which can lead to prejudice and discrimination
- particularly true of western societies imposing their own values on non-western societies
Indigenous psychologies
a method of countering ethnocentrism , the development of different groups of theories in different countries
Outline an example of ethnocentrism
Ainsworth strange situations
- suggesting a secure attachment only characterised by moderate separation and stranger anxiety
German mothers : children showing little separation and stranger anxiety were deemed as cold and rejecting
- led to misinterpretation of child rearing practises in other cultures
Evaluate limitations of culture bias
Consequences of cultural bias : US army IQ test showed that european immigrants fell slightly below white Americans in terms of IQ
- Profound effect on attitudes held by americans towards certain people : stereotyping & discrimination
Osaka Takaano : cultural bias may not always be present C-I
Strengths of cultural bias
worldwide psychology:
-researchers now travel more & therefore have greater understanding of other cultures
- increased opportunities to conducting cross-cultural research :
international conferences : reduces ethnocentrism : appreciating behaviours found in one culture may not be applicable in another
has been found in research :
Like many classic studies : replications of Asch conformity study found that there were differences in conformity between individualist and collectivist cultures
- demonstrates cultural bias in the origin
Define determinism
belief that behaviour is controlled by external or internal factors acting upon us in which we have no control over
what are the three types of determinism
- Biological
-Environmental
-Psychic
Biological determinism and example
view that behaviour is always caused by internal biological forces beyond our control , such as influence of genes
- e.g : specific candidate genes can cause higher levels of intelligence or criminality (MAOA)
Environmental determinism
belief that behaviour is caused by features of the environment , such as previous experiences through CC and OC
e.g phobias : conditioning of phobias (little albert)
Psychic determinism
belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts which we cannot control
e.g Freud theory of personality suggests that adult behaviour is determined by a mix of innate drives and early experience
