issues and debate Flashcards
Define Gender bias
differential treatment / representation of men and woman based off of stereotypes rather than real differences
Define Alpha bias
a view that exaggerates the differences between men and woman , suggesting there are real and enduring differences
- not always , but particularly devaluing woman
Examples of alpha bias
psychodynamic explanation : offending behaviour : suggested that criminality is due to a deviant superego
- (Freud) females do not experience castration anxiety therefore are more likely to be less moral than males
Wilsons sociobiological theory of relationship formation : sexual promiscuity in males is seen as genetically determined whereas in females it is going against their “nature”
-(evolutionary) females need to be selective due to limited eggs and energy to reproduce
- prejudice against woman
schizophrenia diagnosis: diagnosed more in men compared to woman
-(cotten et al) woman are more likely to continue working , maintain good interpersonal relationships and show less distress than men
Define Universality
the aim to develop Psychological conclusions that can be applied to everyone, regardless of time or culture:
- Psychologists may possess beliefs and values that are influenced by the social and historical contexts they live in = creates bias in research.
Define Androcentricsm
- when all behaviour is compared to a “male” standard , often neglecting woman experiences
gender bias is a result of Androcentrism
consequence of beta bias
Examples of androcentrism
PMS : (POST MENSTURAL SYNDROME) : has been criticised as being a social construct which minimises the importance of female emotions , particularly anger
- male anger (on the other hand) seen as logical response to external pressures (Breescoll and Uhlman)
Define “Beta bias””
a view that ignores or minimises the differences between men and woman
- studies derived off of males are applied equally to men
Outline examples of beta bias
fight or flight response : exclusively used male lab mice : experience fewer hormonal fluctuations and so change in adrenaline
( could be more reliably measured)
-However the findings were then generalised to females (beta bias) Taylor 2000 contradicts this
Kohlberg’s level of moral reasoning : American males answered questions based on moral dilemmas , which were then generalised to represent levels of moral reasoning for both men and woman
Evaluate 2 strengths of Gender bias
Feminist psychology : social constructionist approach
- accepts that there are biological differences between men and woman which may influence behaviour , however socially determined stereotypes make a far greater contribution to percieved differences
- Androcentrism can be countered by feminist view and balance can be readressed
- e.g (Eagly 1978) acknowledged : woman may be less effective leaders than men : knowledge should be used to develop suitable training programmes : future w more woman leaders
Reverse alpha bias : (development of theories that show greater emphasis on woman)
- Cornwell et al 2013 : woman better at learning
- more attentive , flexible and organised
-challenges stereotype that in any position the male position must be better (preconceptions) which is important in reducing gender bias
Evaluate 2 limitations of gender bias
Bias in research methods :
-research may find differences between genders however : there may be no difference betweeen the genders but rather the method that was used to observe them
-e.g Rosenthal found : male experimenters are more pleasant and encouraing towards female participants : subsequently they perform better in tasks
- (in addition) less senior positions in experiments given to woman: female concerns less likely to be reflected
Assumptions still need to be challenged:
-Gender bias remains unchallenged in many theories e.g Darwins theory of sexual selection
- suggests : males compete to be chosen and woman choose
- view has been challenged : woman are equally as competitive as (females v females) suggested by DNA evidence etc
Define Culture
rules values and morals and ways of interacting that bind together members of a society ( or some group of people)
Cultural bias
view that judges all cultures and individuals in terms of our own cultural assumptions
- this biases the judgement mad
Cultural relativism
view that behaviour ,morals, standards and values cannot be judged properly unless they are viewed within the same context of the culture in which they originated from
Outline an example of cultural relativism
Milgrams study into obedience
originally conducted using 40 male participants
-
Replicated :
MIRANDA ET AL - SPANISH STUDENTS
90% obedience rates in obedience rates
KILHAM AND MANN - AUS STUDENTS
only 16% of female participants continued to the highest voltage setting
suggests Milgrams original results were bound to american cultures only
what can cultural relativism lead to ?
alpha bias: assumptions of real differences lead to psychologists to overlook universals
beta bias - behaviours that are statistically infrequent in one culture may be more frequent in another e.g schizoprenia
Outline examples of culture bias
distinction between individualist and collectivist cultures: (alpha bias)
- assume that individualistic cultures are less conformist as they are more orientated towards group norms and value needs of group more than the individual
e.g TAKANO OSAKA : reviewed 15 studies comparing US and Japan in terms of individualism/collectivist and found 14/15 studies did not support common view ab conformity
- less of a collectivist/individualist divide in global world
IQ tests (beta bias)
-IQ tests intelligence and applies equally to all cultures
western societies : intelligence is within the individual
non-western : intelligence is a functional relationship depending on shared info between individual and society
- non western people deemed as less intelligent
Emic approach
- look at behaviour from inside of cultural system
- emphasises distinction of uniqueness in every culture
-findings are only specific for that culture
Etic approach
- looking at behaviours from outside of culture
- seeks universal aspects of behaviour
Define “ethnocentrism” and example
Judging other peoples culture based on our own values and our own culture
- Our own culture perspective is taken as a standard by which we measure other cultures which can lead to prejudice and discrimination
- particularly true of western societies imposing their own values on non-western societies
Indigenous psychologies
a method of countering ethnocentrism , the development of different groups of theories in different countries
Outline an example of ethnocentrism
Ainsworth strange situations
- suggesting a secure attachment only characterised by moderate separation and stranger anxiety
German mothers : children showing little separation and stranger anxiety were deemed as cold and rejecting
- led to misinterpretation of child rearing practises in other cultures
Evaluate limitations of culture bias
Consequences of cultural bias : US army IQ test showed that european immigrants fell slightly below white Americans in terms of IQ
- Profound effect on attitudes held by americans towards certain people : stereotyping & discrimination
Osaka Takaano : cultural bias may not always be present C-I
Strengths of cultural bias
worldwide psychology:
-researchers now travel more & therefore have greater understanding of other cultures
- increased opportunities to conducting cross-cultural research :
international conferences : reduces ethnocentrism : appreciating behaviours found in one culture may not be applicable in another
has been found in research :
Like many classic studies : replications of Asch conformity study found that there were differences in conformity between individualist and collectivist cultures
- demonstrates cultural bias in the origin
Define determinism
belief that behaviour is controlled by external or internal factors acting upon us in which we have no control over
what are the three types of determinism
- Biological
-Environmental
-Psychic
Biological determinism and example
view that behaviour is always caused by internal biological forces beyond our control , such as influence of genes
- e.g : specific candidate genes can cause higher levels of intelligence or criminality (MAOA)
Environmental determinism
belief that behaviour is caused by features of the environment , such as previous experiences through CC and OC
e.g phobias : conditioning of phobias (little albert)
Psychic determinism
belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts which we cannot control
e.g Freud theory of personality suggests that adult behaviour is determined by a mix of innate drives and early experience
Free will
suggests that we have the power a choice in determining our thoughts and actions and not controlled by biological or external forces
e.g humanistic approach
Outline an example of an approach with free will
Humanistic approach: suggests that self determinism is a necessary part of human behaviour
- Rogers 1959 : individuals cannot stay controlled by other people or other things they cannot take responsibility for their own behaviour and thus cannot self actualise
Moral responsibility
basis that an individual is in charge of their own actions , therefore all normal adult behaviour is self determined
humans are all accountable for their behaviour regardless of innate factors of early experience
Hard determinism
view that believes all behaviour can be predicted according to the action of internal and external factors beyond our control
- no free will
- e.g biological approach
soft determinism
suggests that behaviour does have a cause but we are also able to make constrained conscious rational choices
- e.g cognitive approach : can make and reason within the limits of our cognitive system
Outline the importance of the scientific approach
scientific research is based on the belief that all events have a cause
IV is manipulated and has an effect on the DV
- can perform statistical analysis and tests
- improves the scientific credibility of psychology
Evaluate limitations of determinism
100% genetic determinism is unlikely to be found for any behaviour :
- research of MZ twins
- studies have found 80% similarity for intelligence and 40% for depression
- supports: genes do not entirely determine behaviour and supports the interactionist standpoint
-Fact that concordance rates for MZ twins are often higher than for siblings (both 50%) may be due to MZ more likely to share environment
Determinist position may be used for people to try and justify a committed crime :
undesirable: excuses their behaviour
- Therefore hard deterministic stance is not in line with the principles of judicial system : sees people as taking moral responsibility for their actions
Evaluate strength of determinism
- lead to biological treatment methods for mental disorders
-e.g depression : control of serotonin using SSRIs and SNRIs
CP: However , this biological deterministic approach does not allow for other treatments which are not based on biological mechanism e.g CBT
Strengths of free will
Good face validity:
- our everyday experience “give the impression” that we are constantly exercising our free will through the choices we make on any day
High internal validity
- Robert et al found : adolescents with an internal LOC are less likely to develop depression & more likely to have better MH compared to external LOC
- free will can help us determine what controls our life events making conscious decisions
Limitation of free will
- does not support the scientific paradigm
- free will is unfalsifiable as behaviour cannot be predicted : behaviours cant be tested
- cannot obtain causal relationships
- incompatible with thee scientific approach of psychology
Define environment
(nurture)
Everything outside of our body including people , events and the physical world
- any influence on behaviour which is non-genetic
Define Nature
any influence on behaviour which is genetic
e.g action of genes , neurochemistry
Heredity
- process by which traits are passed from parents to their offspring
heritability coefficient: used to quantify th extent to which a characteristic has a genetic basis
e.g intelligence appears to have a heritability coefficient of 0.5 (Plomin et al) so influence of nature and nurture are equal
Interactionist approach (Nature and Nurture)
the view that processes of nature and nurture work together rather than in opposition
- behaviour is a product of the interaction between nature and nurture
Outline the Diathesis-stress model
suggests that behaviour has a predisposition in our genes but it requires an environmental trigger for it to actually be expressed
e.g : trauma
Outline examples of the influence of nature
Genetic explanation:
- more closely related two individuals are : more likely that they will develop the same behaviours
-concordance rate for schizophrenia :
40% MZ
7% DZ
however concordance rate not always 100% despite genetically identical
Evolutionary explanation:
- a behaviour promotes survival which will be naturally selected e.g deep water & fire
-such behaviours are adaptive , individual more likely to survive to adulthood and reproduce
e.g BOWLBY attachment : social releasers : activates mammalian attachment system
Outline examples of the influence of nurture
Behaviourism : explain that all behaviour can be explained in terms of experience alone:
CC and OC and rienforcements
SLT: Bandura proposed behaviour is accquired indirectly through OC and CC and indirectly through vicarious rienforcement
- individual learns how to express anger through environmental influences
Epigenetics
refers to life experiences that can change the way our genes are expressed
Environmental influences such as lifestyle can leave marks on our DNA which can last a lifetime and even be inherited
Evaluate strengths of Nature v Nurture approach
Interactionist approach & how nurture can affect nature has research support :
Maguire et al studied brains of black taxi drivers
- larger grey matter volume in mid posterior hippocampus (knowledge exam)
positive correlation between length of time being a driver and grey matter in posterior
Real world applications :
- By understanding nature v nurture debate researchers can predict heritability of certain disorders
-potential sufferers can be given prevention strategies to help prevent gene being expressed
Evaluate limitation of nature v nurture debate
Moral implications
Increased understanding of certain genetic predispositions to behaviours or personality traits can lead to gene editing
- could be deemed as unethical and can have moral implications for future generations of children
Define Holism
attempting to understand human behaviour by analysing the person or behaviour as a whole rather than its constituent parts
- usually qualitative
Define Reductionism
the breaking down of complex phenomena into more simple components to be best understood
- based around scientific principle of parsimony
(shouldnt make conccepts more complicated) - uses quantitative measures
Outline the levels of explanation
1) social and cultural most holistic
psychodynamic
SLT approach
2) psychological
cognitive approach
environmental determinism
3)Biological most reductionist
biological determinism
stinky pigs bite
Biological reductionism
reducing behaviour to biology , based on the idea that we are all biological organisms
-e.g : through genetic , neurological and neurochemical causes as well as evolution
Environmental reductionism
suggests that all behaviour is learnt (behavioural approach) and can be explained by stimulus-response links
Evaluate strength and weaknesses of Holism
STRENGTH
provides a more complete picture:
some behaviours can only be explained in terms of holistic level
- e.g conformity and deindinviduation of zimbardo’s prisoners in SPE
- e.g social context / social roles / disposition
LIMITATIONS:
Hypothetical as it is not based on empirical evidence
- used by humanistic approach : simplifies complex phenomena too far
- cannot be suited towards complex behaviours
impractical explanation
- many factors affecting an individuals behaviour : difficult to identify which explanation is most influential
-therefore which explanation most useful to base treatment on
- cannot lead to development of effective treatments for MH disorders
Evaluate strength and weaknesses of reductionism
STRENGTH
Practical application in development of drug therapy:
-reductionist approach towards research/explaining MH disorders lead to powerful and effective drug therapies
e.g SSRIs for depression based on serotonin
- reduces need for institutionalisation : non invasive treatment : can lead normal life
- consistent w scientific approach
-can control and predict behhavour - smaller constiituent parts of behaviour more eeasily measured/ manipulateed
- cause and effect : scientific cred
WEAKNESS :
Ignores complexity of behaviour :
-ignores social context where a behaviour occurs occurs : gives behaviour its meaning
- e.g the act of speaking : same biological mechanism in all individuals , but ignores social context e.g voicing an opinion
- simplifies complex phenomena too much
Define Idiographic approach
method of investigating behaviour which focuses on individuals and emphasises their uniqueness
What methods does the idiographic approach use
- qualitative data
- unstructured interviews
-focus is more detailed rather than numerical
-subjective : interested in individual opinion
e.g HM and KF
Examples of idiographic approach
Psychodynamic approach : Freud used case studies and in depth interviews collecting qualitative data from Little Hans
- formed Oedipus and Electra complexes
Humanistic approach: holistic approach in research focusing on experience of indvidual
- used to develop client centred approach to therapy
Define Nomothetic approach
seeks to formulate general laws of behaviour based on the study of large groups that can be generalised to wide population
What methods does the nomothetic approach use
- quantitative data
-structured interviews
-scientific method of data taking - numerical data : statstical testings & analysis
- objective due to standardised procedures w/o bias
Outline examples of nomothetic approach
behaviourists: explain all behaviour in terms of simple stimulus-response links
- everything learnt through experience
-collect valid and reliable data
cause & effect
cognitive approach: objective methods of measuring brain activity
EEG and PET
can draw inferences about workings of Mental processes
Biological approach also makes use of bran scans etc Tulving et al
Evaluate strengths and weaknesses of idiographic approach
STRENGTHS
Qualitative data produces in depth & complete account of indvidual
-may support existing theories or challenge general laws : leads to : improved psychological theores through process of deduction
e.g : Clive wearing and HM
LIMITATIONS
narrow and restrictived perspective:
case studies etc: struggle to generalise to wider population : reduces ecological validity of findings
e.g humanism uses idiographic approach : however viewed as “rather loose” with abstract concepts : lack of empirical data
- does not improve scientific cred
method of investigation lacks scientiific rigour:
- case studies and structured interviews
- rely heavy on subjective interp : lack validity of theory developmnt
(timee consuming) compared to nom
Evaluate strength and weaknesses of nomothetic approach
STRENGTH
Highly scientfic methods:
objectively produce reliable data through adopting standardised condtions at high level of control of ext conf etc
- target behaviour can be reliably measured through use of operationalised behavioural categories : high int validity
Enables general principles and laws to be established
- focus on objectively collecting reliable data had led to norms/ standards of behaviour to b established e.g IQ scores
- good basline comparison for MH disorders and intellectual abilities
LIMITATION
underevalue expeerieeence of individual
Define socially sensitive research
Any research that may have direct social consequences for the participants in the research or the social group that they represent
main ethical concerns when conducting SSR (Seiber and Stanley)
- research question
- dealing with participants
- interpretation and application of findings
research question
How research question is phrased could influence the interpretation of findings
e.g “alternative relationships” : prejudice and discrimination against homo relationships , establishing hetereo as norn
Dealing with participants
- Informed consent
- confidentiality
- protection from harm
should all be considered in SSR
e.g if examining victims of domestic violence
How findings are used
Researchers should consider how their findings are used to inform pubblic thinking or policy
- historically ethnic differences supposedly found in IQ has lead to discrimination and prejudice
Evaluate strength and weaknesses of SSR
Cost benefit analysis
- to determne if research projects should continue ethic committees undergo : however ethical implications may be particularly difficult to predict e.g legalisation
Positive impact
- researchers shouldnt stay away from SSR
- can help to challenge stereotyping and discrimination etc
-e.g it is suggested studying these areas will inform the general public and scientific community to deveelip greatr understanding for underepresented groups
WEAKNESS
he guidelines used by psychologists to control SSR lack power and, as a result, are unable to prevent indefensible research from being carried out.
Outline BPS ethical guideline
