Introduction to psychology exam Flashcards

1
Q

Hindsight bias

A

I knew it-all-along phenomenon (я знал это с самого начала). Пример: это открытие ученых неудивительное; После того, как друзья начинают встречаться, мы часто чувствуем, что знали, что им суждено быть вместе.

Hindsight bias (предвзятость задним числом, ретроспективы) - tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have forseen it (склонность полагать, узнав о результате, что кто-то мог его предвидеть).

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2
Q

Overconfidence

A

Is a cognitive bias that refers to the tendency to overestimate abilities, knowledge, skills. Example: underestimating the difficulty of a task or overestimating beliefs.

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3
Q

Perceiving oder in random events (восприятие закономерности в случайных событиях)

A

Examples: двойной выигрыш в лотерею кажется из ряда вон, мы придумываем закономерность; seeming faces in clouds, finding (поиск) significance in coincidence or superstitions (значимости в совпадениях или суевериях).

It can lead to make incorrect assumptions or decisions.

Hindsight bias, overconfidence and tendency to perceive patterns in random events tempt us (побуждают нас) to overestimate our intuition.

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4
Q

The scientific method

A

At foundation of all science is a scientific attitude (научный подход) that combines curiosity, skepticism, and humility (смирение, покорность). Psychologists use scientific method - a self-correcting process for evaluating ideas (самокорректирующийся процесс оценки идей) with observation and analysis. Psychological science welcomes hunches (приветствует предположения) and plausible (правдоподобные) theories. It puts them to the test (это подвергает их испытанию). If data support (подтверждают) its predictions - better for the theory. If it’s predictions fail (если прогноз не оправдывается), the theory gets revised (пересматривается) or rejected.

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5
Q

Constructing Theories (построение теорий)

A

Theory - an explanation using an integrated set of principles (использующий интегрированный набор принципов) that organizes
observations and predicts behaviors or events.
In science, a theory explains behaviors or events (события) by offering ideas that organize observations (предлагая идеи, которые организуют наблюдения). By using principles to organize facts, a theory summarizes and simplifies them. When we connect the observed dots (соединяем наблюдаемые точки), a coherent picture emerges (возникает целостная картина).

Hypothesis - a testable prediction (прогноз), often implied by a theory (подразумеваемый теорией).

Replication (воспроизведение) - repeating the essence of a research study (повторение сути исследования), usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced (чтобы увидеть, можно ли воспроизвести основной вывод).

Operational definition - a carefully worded statement (тщательно сформулированное изложение) of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study (четкого процесса, используемого в исследовании). For example, human intelligence (интеллект) may be defined as what an intelligence test measures (определен как то, что измеряет тест интеллекта).
Определение из chat gpt: An operational definition is a clear and specific explanation of a concept or term, describing how it will be measured or observed in a particular situation.
An example of operational definition: 1.Агрессия: в исследовании агрессию можно определить как количество агрессивных действий (ударов, толчков или оскорблений), проявленных участником в течение определенного периода наблюдения или в ответ на определенный стимул.
Этот пример показывает, как операционные определения делают концепции измеримыми и более понятными, предоставляя четкие критерии для наблюдения или измерения.

Our theories can bias our observations (наши теории могут искажать наши наблюдения). The urge (желание) to see what we expect is ever-present (присутствует постоянно). Example: when people’s views of climate change (взгляды на изменение климата) influence their interpretation of weather events. As a check on their biases (чтобы проверить свои предубеждения), psychologists report their research (сообщают о своих исследованиях) with precise (точными) operational definitions of procedures and concepts. Using these carefully worded statements (используя эти тщательно сформулированные утверждения), others can replicate (repeat) the original observations with different participants, materials, and circumstances. If they get similar results, confidence in the finding’s reliability grows (уверенность в достоверности результатов возрастает).

Meta-analysis.
In psychological and medical science important tool in psychology’s toolkit (набор инструментов) is meta-analysis, which statistically combines (объединяет) the results of many studies to provide a bottom-line result (чтобы получить итоговый результат).
What does a good theory do?
1. It organizes observed facts (она упорядочивает наблюдаемые факты)
2. It implies hypotheses that offer testable predictions and, sometimes, practical applications (она подразумевает гипотезы, которые предлагают проверяемые прогнозы, а иногда практические приложения)
3. It often stimulates further research (она часто стимулирует дальнейшие исследования).

We can test our hypotheses and refine (усовершенствовать) our theories using
1. descriptive methods (описательные методы), which describe behaviors, often through case studies (исследования конкретных ситуаций, surveys (опросов), or naturalistic observations
2. correlational methods, which associate different factors (которые связывают различные факторы)
3. experimental methods, which manipulate factors to discover their effects (чтобы обнаружить их эффекты).

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6
Q

Constructing Theories: Description (описание)

A

Psychologists use case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys to observe and describe behavior.
1. case studies in-depth analyses (углубленный анализ) of individuals or groups
2. naturalistic observations: recording the natural behavior (запись естественного поведения) of many
individuals
3. surveys and interviews: asking people questions.

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7
Q

The first descriptive method: the case study

A

A descriptive technique which examines one individual or group in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles (глубинно исследуется один человек или группа в надежде выявить универсальные принципы).
Examples:
1. Much of our early knowledge about the brain came from case studies of individuals who suffered impairments (нарушениями) after damage to a certain brain region.
2. Jean Piaget taught us about children’s thinking (детском мышлении) after observing and questioning only a few children.
3. Animal intelligence (интеллект животных). Studies of various animals, including only a few chimpanzees, have revealed their capacity for understanding and language (выявили их способность к пониманию и языку).

We cannot assume that case studies always reveal (выявляют) general principles that apply to all of us. Why not?
ANSWER: Case studies involve only one individual or group, so we can’t know for sure whether the principles observed would
apply to a larger population (охватывают только одного человека или группу, поэтому мы не можем точно знать, применимы ли соблюдаемые
принципы к большей популяции).

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8
Q

The second descriptive method: naturalistic observation

A

Naturalistic observation - a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation (описательный метод наблюдения и записи поведения в естественных ситуациях без попыток манипулировать ситуацией и контролировать ее).
Method records behavior in natural environments (фиксирует поведение в естественной среде). These naturalistic observations range from watching (эти натуралистические наблюдения варьируются от наблюдения за) chimpanzee societies in the jungle, to videotaping (видеосъемки) and analyzing parent-child interactions (взаимодействия родителей и детей), to recording racial differences in students’ self-seating patterns in a school lunchroom (записи расовых различий в том, как ученики самостоятельно рассаживаются в школьной столовой).

Sigmund Freud’s case study of 5-year-old Hans’ extreme fear of horses led Freud to his theory of childhood sexuality. Psychological science discounts (отвергает) Freud’s theory but agree that much of the human mind operates outside our conscious awareness (большая часть человеческого разума функционирует за пределами нашего сознательного восприятия).
Naturalistic observation was “small science”—science that can be done with pen and paper rather than fancy equipment and a big budget. But new technologies, such as smart-phone apps and social media, are enabling (позволяют проводить) “big data” observations. Using such tools, researchers can track (отслеживать) people’s location, activities, and opinions— without interference (без вмешательства извне). The billions of people in social media have created a huge new opportunity for big-data naturalistic observation (для натуралистического наблюдения за большими данными). Now is possible to associate people’s moods with their locations or with the weather, and to study the spread of ideas through social networks.

Like the case study, naturalistic observation does not explain behavior. It describes it, but descriptions can be revealing (показательными). The starting point of any science is description.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observation, such as Mehl and his colleagues used in this study?
ANSWER:
These researchers were able to carefully observe and record naturally behaviors outside the laboratory. Outside the lab they were not able to control for all the factors that may have influenced the everyday interactions.

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9
Q

The third descriptive method: the survey

A

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group (описательный метод для получения ответов определенной группы по поводу отношения участников к чему-то или их поведения, обычно путем опроса репрезентативной случайной выборки из группы).

The answers often depend on how questions are worded (сформулированы) and how respondents are chosen. Even subtle (незначительные) changes in the order or wording (формулировках) of questions can have major effects.

random sample - a sample that fairly represents (достоверно отображает) a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion (равный шанс быть включенным).

population - everybody in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn (те, кто входит в исследуемую группу, из которой могут быть выбраны испытуемые). Exception: national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population.

random sampling - helps researchers generalize from a small set of survey responses to a larger population.

The best basis for generalizing is from a representative sample. An unrepresentative sample is a group that does not represent the entire population being studied. Random sampling helps researchers form (сформировать) a representative sample.

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10
Q

Correlation

A

Correlation - statistical measure that helps us understand how two variables are related (связаны) and how they change in relation to each other. Positive correlation: when one variable increases, the other tends to increase as well. Example: as the temperature goes up, people tend to buy more ice cream. A correlation is positive if two sets of scores tend to rise or fall together. Negative correlation: when one increases, the other tends to decrease. Example: as the price of a product goes up, the demand for that product tends to decrease.

Сorrelation coefficient (statistical measure) -statistical measure that quantifies the strength and direction of the relationship (определяет силу и направление взаимосвязи) between two variables. It ranges (варьируется) from -1 to 1, where -1 indicates a perfect negative correlation, 1 indicates a perfect positive correlation, and 0 indicates no correlation. The closer the value is to -1 or 1, the stronger the correlation, and the closer it is to 0, the weaker the correlation. The correlation coefficient helps us determine how closely two variables vary together and how well one variable predicts the other.

Describing behavior is a first step toward predicting it (первый шаг к его прогнозированию). Naturalistic observations and surveys often show us that one trait or behavior tends to coincide with another (одна черта характера или поведение имеют тенденцию совпадать с другой). In such cases, we say the two correlate.

How well do intelligence test scores predict career achievement? (Насколько хорошо результаты теста на интеллект предсказывают карьерные достижения?). How closely is stress related to disease? In such cases, scatterplots can be very revealing (показательным).

variable - anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure ( все, что может изменяться и что возможно и этично измерить).

scatterplot - a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables (диаграмма рассеяния представляет собой графическое скопление точек, каждая из которых представляет значения двух переменных). The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables (Наклон точек указывает на направление взаимосвязи между двумя переменными). The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation: little scatter indicates high correlation (Величина разброса указывает на силу корреляции (небольшой разброс указывает на высокую корреляцию).

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11
Q

Illusory correlation and regression toward the mean (иллюзорная корреляция и регрессия по отношению к среднему значению)

A

Illusory correlation perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship (иллюзорная корреляция, воспринимающая отношения там, где их не существует, или воспринимающая отношения более сильные, чем на самом деле).

Correlations not only make visible the relationships we might otherwise miss, they also restrain our “seeing” nonexistent relationships (Корреляции не только делают видимыми взаимосвязи, которые мы в противном случае могли бы упустить, они также мешают нам “видеть” несуществующие взаимосвязи). Example of illusory correlation: If we believe that dreams forecast actual events (предсказывают реальные события), we may notice and recall confirming instances (подтверждающие случаи) more than disconfirming instances (опровергающих случаев). The result is an illusory correlation.

Regression toward the mean is a statistical phenomenon that refers to the tendency of extreme values or outliers of a variable to move closer to the average or mean value of the variable over time (к тенденции экстремальных значений или резко отличающихся значений переменной приближаться к среднему значению переменной с течением времени).
Regression toward the mean can be observed in sports, health, and performance evaluations (при оценке производительности). In sports athletes who have an exceptionally good performance (исключительно хорошие результаты) in one game are likely to have a performance closer to their average or mean performance in subsequent games (будут показывать результаты, близкие к их средним показателям в последующих играх).

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12
Q

Experimentation

A

To isolate cause and effect researchers must experiment (выделить причину и следствие, — исследователи должны экспериментировать). Experiment - a research method in which an investigator manipulates (управляет) one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable) (чтобы наблюдать влияние на некоторое поведение или ментальные процессы).

experimental group in an experiment - the group exposed to the treatment (подверглась воздействию), that is, to one version of the independent variable (то есть воздействию независимой переменной).

control group in an experiment - the group not exposed to the treatment (не подвергалась воздействию переменной); contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment (контрастирует с экспериментальной группой, служит сравнением для оценки воздействия).

Random assignment (не путать с random sampling - случайной выборкой) assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.(случайное распределение участников в экспериментальную и контрольную группы производится случайным образом, что сводит к минимуму ранее существовавшие различия между разными группами).

An experiment has at least two different conditions (условия): an experimental condition and a comparison or control condition (экспериментальное условие и условие сравнения или контроля).

Основные отличия корреляционного исследования от экспериментального.
1. Корреляционное:
Корреляционное исследование оценивает взаимоотношение между двумя и более факторами, которые называются переменными. Факторы не контролируются исследователем. Исследование пытается выявить, есть ли связь между переменными. Когда одна переменная меняет свою величину, что происходит с величиной другой переменной?
2. Экспериментальное исследование пытается выявить взаимосвязь причины и следствия. Исследователь манипулирует переменной (независимой переменной), предъявляемой испытуемым, а потом наблюдает эффект манипуляции на другую переменную (зависимую переменную), которой не манипулируют. Предполагается, что независимая переменная является причиной изменений, которые могут произойти в зависимой переменной.

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13
Q

Procedures and the placebo effect

A

Double-blind procedure (двойная процедура вслепую) - an experimental procedure in which the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo (экспериментальная процедура, при которой участники исследования и персонал исследования не знают (слепы), получили ли участники исследования лечение или плацебо). Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies (широко используется в исследованиях по оценке лекарств).

Placebo effect (latin word that means “I shall please” - латинское слово, означающее: “я буду радовать”) - experimental results caused by expectations alone (экспериментальные результаты, вызванные только ожиданиями); any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent (любое влияние на поведение, вызванное введением вещества, которое получатель считает активным агентом).

How new drugs and new methods of psychological therapy are evaluated (оцениваются)? Investigators randomly assign (распределяют) participants to research groups. One group receives a treatment (such as a medication - например, лекарства). The other group receives a pseudotreatment — an inert placebo (perhaps a pill with no drug in it). The participants are often blind (uninformed - неосведомлены) about what treatment, if any (если вообще), they are receiving. If the study is using a double-blind procedure (двойную процедуру вслепую), neither the participants nor those who administer the drug and collect the data (ни те, кто вводит лекарство и собирает данные) will know which group is receiving the treatment.
In double-blind studies, researchers check a treatment’s actual effects apart from the participants’ and the staff’s belief in its healing powers (проверяют реальные эффекты лечения вне зависимости от убеждений участников и персонала в его целебных силах). Just thinking you are getting a treatment can boost your spirits (поднять вам настроение), relax your body, and relieve your symptoms. This placebo effect is well documented in reducing pain, depression, and anxiety.
For example, athletes have run faster when given a supposed performance-enhancing drug (получая препарат, который якобы повышал производительность). The more expensive the placebo, the more “real” it seems to us — a fake pill that costs $2.50 worked better than one costing 10 cents . To know how effective a therapy really is, researchers must control for a possible placebo effect.

What measures do researchers use to prevent the placebo effect from confusing their results (не привел к путанице в их результатах)?
Answer:
1. randomly assigns (распределяют) participants to an experimental group (which receives the real treatment) or to a control group (which receives a placebo)
2. they use a double-blind procedure.

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14
Q

Independent and dependent variables

A

Independent variable in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied ( влияние которой изучается).

A dependent variable - variable in a study or experiment that is being measured, observed, or recorded to investigate the effect of the independent variable (которая измеряется, наблюдается или регистрируется для изучения влияния независимой переменной). It is called dependent because its value is presumed to depend on the independent variable (предполагается, что его значение зависит от независимой переменной). Ultimately establishing a cause-and-effect relationship (в конечном счете устанавливая причинно-следственную связь).

A variable is anything that can vary (измениться): infant nutrition, intelligence, TV exposure (просмотр телепередач) — anything within the bounds of what is feasible and ethical to measure (все, что находится в пределах того, что возможно и этично измерить).

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15
Q

A confounding variable (переменная, сбивающая с толку)

A

A confounding variable - an external factor (внешний фактор) in an experiment that can influence the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable, potentially leading to incorrect conclusions about causality. Confounding variables can create the appearance of an association between variables when none exists or mask a true association between variables (создавать видимость связи между переменными, когда таковой не существует, или маскировать истинную связь между переменными).
Пример: предположим, в исследовании исследуется взаимосвязь между потреблением кофе и сердечными заболеваниями. Результаты могут показать, что люди, которые пьют больше кофе, имеют более высокий риск сердечных заболеваний. Однако, если те же самые люди с большей вероятностью курят сигареты, курение может быть фактором, приводящим к сердечно-сосудистым заболеваниям, а не само потребление кофе.

Random assignment (случайное распределение) works to minimize preexisting (ранее существовавших) differences between the groups before any treatment effects occur.
Random assignment means dividing people into groups randomly. This helps make sure that the groups are similar before any treatment takes place. Researchers can be more confident that any differences seen later on are because of the treatment.

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16
Q

Psychological disorder (психологическое расстройство).

A

a syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance (нарушение) in an individual’s cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior (синдром, характеризующийся клинически значимым нарушением когнитивных функций, регуляции эмоций или поведения человека).

Disorders reflect genetic predispositions and physiological states (физиологические состояния), inner psychological dynamics, and social and cultural circumstances.

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17
Q

Understanding psychological disorders. The Medical Model.

A

There are 2 approaches: 1. biopsychosocial approach
2. medical model

The Medical Model - the concept that psychological disorders have physical causes (физические причины) that can be diagnosed, and, in most cases, cured (излечивать), often through treatment in a hospital.

By the 1800s hospitals replaced asylums (приюты), and the medical model of mental disorders was born. A mental illness (psychopathology) needs to be diagnosed on the basis of its symptoms, and be treated through therapy, in some cases in a psychiatric hospital.
Later it was discovered that genetically influenced abnormalities (генетически обусловленные отклонения) in brain structure and biochemistry contribute to many disorders (биохимия способствуют возникновению многих расстройств) .

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18
Q

Understanding psychological disorders. The biopsychosocial approach.

A

The biopsychosocial approach emphasizes that mind and body are inseparable (подчеркивает, что разум и тело неразделимы). Negative emotions can contribute (способствовать) to physical illness, and physical abnormalities can likewise contribute to negative emotions (физ. отклонения также могут способствовать возникновению негативных эмоций).

The biopsychosocial approach gave rise to the vulnerability-stress model (привел к появлению модели уязвимости-стресса), which argues that individual characteristics combine with environmental stressors to increase or decrease the likelihood of developing a psychological disorder (индивидуальные характеристики в сочетании с факторами стресса окружающей среды приводят к увеличению или уменьшению вероятности развития психологического расстройства). Research on epigenetics (literally, “in addition to genetic”) (эпигенетики - буквально “в дополнение к генетике”) supports the vulnerability-stress model by showing how our DNA and our environment interact. In one environment, a gene will be expressed, but in another, it may lie dormant (В одной среде ген будет экспрессироваться, но в другой он может находиться в состоянии покоя).

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19
Q

Biopsychosocial approach to psychological disorders: biological, psychological and social-cultural influences

A

Biological influences:
1. evolution
2. individual genes
3. brain structure and chemistry

Psychological influences:
1. stress
2. trauma
3. learned helplessness - when an individual repeatedly experiences negative outcomes and believes he has no control over his environment.
4. mood-related perceptions and memories (perception and interpretation of events).

Social-cultural influences:
1. roles. For example, gender roles may influence an individual’s expression of emotions.
2. expectations. For example, the pressure to conform (принуждение соответствовать) to certain social norms
3. definitions of normality and disorder

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20
Q

Epigenetics

A

Epigenetics - the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change (которая происходит без изменения ДНК).

gene expression - это процесс, при котором информация в гене используется для производства функционального белка или молекулы РНК.

Epigenetic changes can be influenced by environmental factors: diet, stress, and exposure to toxins (воздействие).

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21
Q

Classifying Disorders (классификация расстройств)

A

In biology: classification creates order (классификация создает порядок).
In psychiatry and psychology: classification orders (создает порядок), describes symptoms and aims (направлена на то, чтобы) to predict a disorder’s future course (будущее течение расстройства), suggest treatment, and prompt research into its causes (ускорить исследование его причин). To study a disorder, we must first name and describe it.

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22
Q

World Health Organization’s International Classification of Diseases (ICD) - Международная классификация болезней Всемирной организации здравоохранения (МКБ)

A
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23
Q

DSM-5 - the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition

A

a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders. Physicians (врачи) use “diagnostic criteria and codes” (диагностические критерии и коды) in the DSM-5 to guide medical diagnoses and treatment (постановки медицинского диагноза и лечения).

В США инструментом для описания расстройств и оценки частоты их возникновения является Руководство по диагностике и статистике психических расстройств Американской психиатрической ассоциации, вышедшее в пятом издании (DSM-5)

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24
Q

Insomnia disorder

A

Insomnia Disorder criteria:
1. feeling unsatisfied with amount or quality of sleep (trouble falling asleep, staying asleep, or returning to sleep - возвращением ко сну)
2. Sleep disruption (нарушение) causes distress or diminished everyday functioning (ухудшение повседневной деятельности)
3. Happens three or more nights each week
4. Occurs during at least three consecutive months (три месяца подряд)
5. Happens even with sufficient sleep opportunities (достаточных возможностях для сна)
6. Independent from other sleep disorders (such as narcolepsy)
7. Independent from substance use or abuse (Независимо от употребления психоактивных веществ или злоупотребления ими)
8. Independent from other mental disorders or medical conditions (медицинских состояний)

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25
Q

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

A

a psychological disorder marked by extreme inattention (характеризующееся крайней невнимательностью) and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity.

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26
Q

Labeling individuals with disorders

A

Therapists and others apply disorder labels (применяют ярлыки расстройств) to communicate with one another using a common language, and to share concepts during research. Clients may benefit from knowing that they are not the only ones with these symptoms.
The dangers of labeling people are that
1. people may begin to act as they have been labeled (люди могут начать действовать соответствующе ярлыкам
2. the labels can trigger assumptions that will change people’s behavior toward those labeled (например, не брать на работу).

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27
Q

Risk and Protective Factors for Mental Disorders

A

Poverty - is a predictor (фактор, использующийся для прогнозирования) of psychiatric disorders that crosses ethnic and gender lines (пересекающий этнические и гендерные границы). The incidence (доля) of serious psychological disorders is 2.5 times higher among those below the poverty line (зв чертой бедности). Poverty-related stresses can help trigger disorders, but disabling disorders can also contribute to poverty. It’s hard to know which came first.

Risk and protective factors:
1. Academic failure (Академическая неуспеваемость) - Aerobic exercise
2. Birth complications - Community offering empowerment, opportunity, and security (such as support groups, mental health services, and recreational (развлекательные, оздоровительные) activities)
3. Caring for those who are chronically ill or who have a neurocognitive disorder (ex. Parkinson’s disease) - Community offering empowerment, opportunity (расширение прав и возможностей), and security
4. Child abuse and neglect (пренебрежение) - Economic independence
5. Chronic insomnia - Effective parenting
6. Chronic pain - Feelings of mastery (управления) and control (чувство уверенности и компетентности в умении управлять и преодолевать жизненные трудности)
7. Family disorganization (неорганизованность) or conflict - Feelings of mastery and control
8. Low birth weight - Feelings of security
9. Low socioeconomic status - High self-esteem
10. Medical illness - Literacy (грамотность: понимание медицинской информации и ресурсов и доступ к ним)
11. Neurochemical imbalance - Positive attachment (привязанность) and early bonding (связь). Neurochemical imbalance
- imbalances in neurotransmitters, such as serotonin or dopamine, can contribute to the disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and bipolar disorder.
12. Parental mental illness - Positive parent-child relationships
13. Parental substance abuse (злоупотребление психоактивными веществами родителями) - Positive parent-child relationships
14. Personal loss and bereavement (Личные потери и тяжелая утрата) - Problem-solving skills (Навыки решения проблем)
15. Poor work skills and habits, reading disabilities, sensory disabilities (loss or impairment (ухудшение) of one or more senses, such as hearing, vision, or touch) - Resilient (гибкость) coping with stress and adversity
(Устойчивость к стрессам и невзгодам)
16. Social incompetence (трудности во взаимодействии с людьми) - Social and work skills
17. Stressful life events; Substance abuse (Злоупотребление психоактивными веществами); Trauma experiences - Social support from family and friends

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28
Q

At what times of life do disorders strike?

A

the symptoms of antisocial personality disorder (антисоциального расстройства личности) (median age 8 - средний возраст) and of phobias (median age 10). Alcohol use disorder (расстройства, связанные с употреблением алкоголя), obsessive-compulsive disorder, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia symptoms appear at a median age near 20. Major depressive disorder (серьезное депрессивное расстройство) - at a median age of 25

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29
Q

Are psychological disorders universal or culture-specific?

A

Disorders, such as schizophrenia and major depressive disorder, are universal—they occur in all cultures.
Latin America: susto (сусто - состояние), a condition marked by severe anxiety, restlessness, and a fear of black magic (состояние тревоги и страхом перед черной магией). Japan: taijin kyofusho—social anxiety about their appearance, combined with a readiness to blush and a fear of eye contact (социальную тревогу по поводу своей внешности в сочетании с готовностью краснеть и боязнью зрительного контакта). The eating disorders anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa occur mostly in food-abundant Western cultures (изобилующих пищевыми продуктами). Malaysia: a sudden outburst (вспышка) of violent behavior.

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30
Q

Why is the DSM, and the DSM-5 in particular, considered controversial (спорный)?

A

Critics concern about the negative effects of the DSM’s labeling. Critics suggest the DSM-5 casts too wide a net on disorders, pathologizing normal behavior (слишком широко применяет понятие расстройства, патологизируя нормальное поведение).

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31
Q

Anxiety Disorders. OCD, and PTSD

A

The anxiety disorders are marked by distressing (мучительной), persistent anxiety or by dysfunctional anxiety-reducing (снижающим тревогу) behaviors. For example, people with social anxiety disorder become extremely anxious in social settings, such as parties, class presentations, or eating in public. To stave off (избавиться) anxious thoughts and feelings (including physical symptoms such as sweating and trembling - дрожь), they may avoid going out at all (выходить куда-либо). It is maladaptive—it does not help them cope (справляться) with their world.

When the brain’s danger-detection system becomes hyperactive (система обнаружения опасности в мозге), we are at greater risk for an anxiety disorder, and for two other disorders that involve anxiety: obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

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32
Q

How do 3 anxiety disorders - generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and phobias - differ?

A
  1. Generalized anxiety disorder, in which a person is unexplainably and continually tense and uneasy (необъяснимо и постоянно напряжен и испытывает беспокойство).
  2. Panic disorder, in which a person experiences panic attacks—sudden episodes of intense dread (сильного страха) — and fears the next episode’s unpredictable onset (боится непредсказуемого наступления следующего эпизода).
  3. Phobias, in which a person is intensely (сильно) and irrationally afraid of a specific object, activity, or situation.
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33
Q

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

A

Generalized anxiety disorder an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense (постоянно напряжен), apprehensive (испытывает опасения), and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal (возбуждения вегетативной нервной системы).

Generalized anxiety disorder (two-thirds are women - две трети):
1. excessive (чрезмерным) and uncontrollable worry that persists (продолжающимся) for six months or more
2. jittery (нервные), agitated (взволнованы), and sleep- deprived (недосыпают)
3. gaze (пристальный взгляд) becomes fixated on potential threats
4. concentration is difficult because attention switches from worry to worry
5. tension (напряжение) and apprehension (опасение) may leak out through furrowed brows (проявляться в нахмуренных бровях), twitching eyelids (подергивании век), trembling (дрожи), perspiration (испарине), or fidgeting (ерзании) from autonomic nervous system arousal ( из-за возбуждения вегетативной нервной системы)

The person usually cannot identify and avoid, the tension’s cause. To use Freud’s term, the anxiety is free-floating (not linked to a specific stressor or threat) - тревога является свободно плавающей (не связанной с конкретным стрессором или угрозой). Generalized anxiety disorder is often accompanied by depressed mood (подавленным настроением). It may lead to physical problems, such as high blood pressure. As time passes emotions tend to mellow (смягчаться), and by age 50, generalized anxiety disorder becomes fairly (довольно) rare.

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34
Q

Panic Disorder

A

Panic disorder (паническое расстройство) - an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes-long episodes (эпизоды в несколько минут) of intense dread (сильного страха) in which a person may experience terror (ужас) and chest pain, choking (удушье), or other frightening sensations. Often followed by worry over a possible next attack (часто за этим следует беспокойство по поводу возможного следующего приступа).
Person can feel that something horrible is about to happen and also irregular heartbeat (Нерегулярное сердцебиение), chest pains, shortness of breath (затруднение дыхания), choking, trembling, or dizziness (головокружение), sweat, feeling of going to faint (упасть в обморок).
For the 3 percent of people with panic disorder, panic attacks are recurrent (повторяются). After several panic attacks, people may avoid situations where panic might strike (возникнуть). If their fear is intense enough, people may develop agoraphobia - страх по поводу нахождения в местах, где нет возможности легко их покинуть, или где в случае сильной тревоги помощь может быть недоступна. People may avoid being outside the home, in a crowd, or in an elevator. Smokers have a doubled risk of panic disorder and greater symptoms (симптомы более выраженные) when they do have an attack, nicotine is a stimulant (стимулятор).

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35
Q

Phobias

A

phobia - an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent (постоянным), irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation (избеганием определенного объекта, деятельности или ситуации).
Some people are incapacitated (недееспособны) by their efforts to avoid the feared situation.
A strong fear becomes a phobia if it provokes a compelling (непреодолимое) irrational desire to avoid the dreaded (ужасающего) object or situation.

36
Q

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

A

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) - a disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions), actions (compulsions), or both.
2 percent of people have OCD, it appears during late teens or twenties. OCD is more common among teens and young adults than among older people. The obsessions and compulsions had gradually reduce (постепенно уменьшались), but only 1 in 5 (только один из пяти больных ОКР) had completely recovered (полностью выздоровел).

Popular OCD examples:
Obsessions (repetitive thoughts) - Повторяющиеся мысли - 40% of OCD people:
1. Concern with dirt, germs (беспокойство из-за грязи, микробов), or toxins - 24%
2. Something terrible happening (fire, death, illness) - 17%
3. Symmetry, order, or exactness (Симметрия, порядок или точность)

Compulsions (repetitive behaviors) - 85%:
1. Excessive (чрезмерное) hand washing, bathing,
tooth brushing, or grooming (уход за собой) - 51%
2. Repeating rituals (in/out of a door (вход и выход за дверь), up/down from a chair (сесть и встать со стула) - 46%
3. Checking doors, locks (замков), appliances (приборы), car brakes (автомобильных тормозов), homework

37
Q

OCD-related disorders (расстройства, связанные с ОКР)

A
  1. hoarding (накопительство) disorder - cluttering space with acquired possessions one can’t let go (загромождение своего пространства приобретенными вещами, от которых человек не может избавиться)
  2. body dysmorphic disorder (дисморфофобия) - preoccupation with perceived body defects (чрезмерная озабоченность предполагаемыми дефектами тела)
  3. new words to impress friends
  4. trichotillomania - hair-pulling (выдергивание волос)
  5. excoriation (экскориация) disorder - excessive skin-picking (самоповреждение кожи)
38
Q

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

A

PTSD - a disorder characterized by haunting memories (навязчивыми воспоминаниями), nightmares, hypervigilance (повышенной бдительностью), social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling (остранение от чувств), and/or insomnia that lingers (сохраняется) for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience.

Survivors of disasters (пережившие катастрофы), veterans, and violent and sexual assaults (including two-thirds - две трети - of prostitutes) have experienced PTSD symptoms.

Symptoms:
1. recurring haunting (повторяющиеся навязчивые) memories and nightmares
2. laser-focused attention to possible threats (зацикленное внимание на возможных угрозах), social withdrawal (социальная изоляция), jumpy anxiety (частая тревога), and trouble sleeping.

39
Q

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

A

PTSD - a disorder characterized by haunting memories (навязчивыми воспоминаниями), nightmares, hypervigilance (повышенной бдительностью), social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling (остранение от чувств), and/or insomnia that lingers (сохраняется) for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience.

Survivors of disasters (пережившие катастрофы), veterans, and violent and sexual assaults (including two-thirds - две трети - of prostitutes) have experienced PTSD symptoms.

Symptoms:
1. recurring haunting (повторяющиеся навязчивые) memories and nightmares
2. laser-focused attention to possible threats (зацикленное внимание на возможных угрозах), social withdrawal (социальная изоляция), jumpy anxiety (частая тревога), and trouble sleeping.

40
Q

Understanding Anxiety Disorders, OCD, and PTSD

A

How do conditioning, cognition, and biology contribute to the feelings and thoughts that mark anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD?

41
Q

functionalism

A

A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish. (Influenced by Darwin, William James established the school of functionalism, which opposed structuralism)

Школа психологии, которая сосредоточилась на том, как функционируют наши психические и поведенческие процессы - как они позволяют нам адаптироваться, выживать и процветать. (Под влиянием Дарвина Уильям Джеймс основал школу функционализма, которая противостояла структурализму)

For example, a functionalist might study how emotions help people respond to social situations, or how memory helps people learn and remember information.

This approach has led to the development of educational psychology, industrial-organizational psychology, and clinical psychology.

42
Q

the unconscious mind

A

The unconscious mind refers to the part of our mental life that is inaccessible to our conscious awareness. It is a concept introduced by Sigmund Freud.
unconscious mind was the repository of repressed thoughts (хранилищем вытесненных мыслей), feelings, and memories that were too threatening or unacceptable to be brought into conscious awareness.

Unconscious mind is the source of our deepest desires and motivations, and it influences our behavior and emotions. A person may have an unconscious fear of intimacy (близости) that causes them to sabotage their relationships without realizing it.

43
Q

the psychoanalytic perspective

A

developed by Freud, childhood experiences are the cause of adult behavior, which emphasizes the role of unconscious fears, desires, and motivations on thought, behavior and mental states.

Psychoanalytic therapy aims to uncover (направлена на выявление) these unconscious conflicts and bring them to conscious awareness, allowing the individual to resolve (разрешить) them and achieve psychological healing.

The psychoanalytic perspective proposes unconscious, defense mechanisms, and the psychosexual stages of development (бессознательное, защитные механизмы и психосексуальные стадии развития).
Involves free association, dream analysis, and interpretation of unconscious material.

44
Q

behaviorism

A

Watson and later Skinner emphasized the study of overt behavior as the subject matter of scientific psychology (the main subject of their studies were rats and pigeons to show how we can affect behavior but soon realized that didn’t reveal enough about human behavior)

Behaviorism suggests that behavior can be studied objectively, without the need to refer to internal processes such as thinking, feelings or motivation.
assumes that behavior can be studied in the context of stimulus and response.
Famous representatives of behaviorism include Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, John Watson. They developed techniques for studying animal and human behavior, as well as methods for changing it, using reinforcement and punishment.

45
Q

humanistic psychology

A

an approach that focuses on studying personality and self-actualization. Asserts (утверждает) that each person has the potential for personal growth and development, and that this potential can be realized in a favorable (благоприятной) environment.

Main representatives are Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. They suggested that to understand a person, it is necessary to address his internal experiences, motivations, and values.

Humanistic psychology proposes self-actualization, the need for personal growth, integrity (целостность), and autonomy.
Methods to help achieve potential and self-actualization: client-centered therapy, group therapy, art therapy.

46
Q

The ABC of psychology

A

Азбука психологии.
Affect - the way we feel
Behavior - the way we behave
Cognition - the way we think

“Affect” includes happiness, sadness, anger, fear, and others.

“Behavior” refers to the way we behave in response to our emotions and thoughts. includes overt (явное) and covert (скрытое) behaviors, such as facial expressions (выражение лица), body language, verbal communication, and thoughts.

“Cognition” includes perceptions, beliefs, attitudes, and thought patterns. can influence our emotions and behavior, an important component of mental health and well-being.

47
Q

manifest content (манифестное или явное содержание сновидения)

A

According to freud, the remembered storyline of a dream (сюжетная линия сновидения). Distinct from its latent or hidden content.

The concept of manifest content is a central idea in Sigmund Freud’s theory of dream interpretation. The manifest content of a dream is a disguise or distorted version of its true meaning (замаскированная или искаженная версия его истинного значения), which is hidden in the dream’s latent content (которое скрыто в латентном содержании сновидения).

Freud believed that dreams - a way for the unconscious mind to express repressed (подавленные) desires and anxieties that are too threatening or unacceptable to be brought into conscious awareness. He believed that dreams used symbols and metaphors to represent unconscious desires and conflicts.

48
Q

latent content

A

According to freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content).

The latent content of a dream is a symbolic expression of repressed desires, anxieties, and conflicts that are too threatening or unacceptable to be brought into conscious awareness.

49
Q

personality

A

an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting.

Personality refers to the unique set of characteristics, traits, behaviors, and patterns of thought that define an individual’s distinctive way of being in the world. Personality can be shaped (формироваться) by a variety of factors, including genetics, upbringing (воспитание), culture, and life experiences.

50
Q

psychodynamic theories

A

refer to a group of theories that emphasize the role of unconscious thoughts, feelings, and motivations in shaping (в формировании) human behavior and mental health.
Developed by Sigmund Freud.
Unconscious conflicts and desires can give rise to anxiety, depression, and neurosis.
Importance of early childhood experiences in shaping adult personality and behavior.

51
Q

psychoanalysis

A

Is a form of psychodynamic therapy developed by Sigmund Freud. Based on the idea that unconscious thoughts, feelings, and conflicts influence behavior. Bringing (доведение) these unconscious processes to conscious awareness (до сознания) can help to understand better and resolve psychological difficulties.

One of the key concepts in psychoanalysis is the idea of transference (переноса), which refers to the patient’s tendency to project unconscious feelings and desires onto the therapist (проецировать бессознательные чувства и желания на терапевта).

52
Q

unconscious

A

Unconscious refers to mental processes (психическим процессам) that occur outside of conscious awareness (According to contemporary - современных psychologists). These processes include thoughts, feelings, desires, and memories that are not immediately accessible to conscious awareness (не сразу доступны сознанию), but influence behavior, emotions, and attitudes.

According to freud, a reservoir (резервуар) of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings and memories.

According to psychodynamic theories, the unconscious is a key determinant (фактором) of human behavior, and many psychological symptoms and disorders are result from conflicts and repressed feelings and desires that are stored in the unconscious.

53
Q

free association

A

a psychoanalytic technique used to explore (исследования) the unconscious mind by encouraging a patient to express thoughts and feelings freely and without censorship (цензуры), to speak about whatever comes to mind, without worrying about social norms.
The goal is to help the patient gain a better understanding of the conflicts and desires that may be contributing to their psychological difficulties.

54
Q

Id

A

is the primitive, instinctual part of the psychea and reservoir of unconscious psychic energy (психической энергии) that, according to freud, strives (стремится) to satisfy basic sexual, aggressive drives, hunger, and thirst. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification (действует по принципу удовольствия, требуя немедленного удовлетворения).

“id” refers to one of the three components of Freud’s structural model of the psyche. the psyche (or human mind) is composed of three parts: the id, the ego, and the superego.
The id is not influenced by morality, and it seeks to satisfy its impulses without regard for the consequences (не обращая внимания на последствия).

the id appears from birth, it is the most primitive and least developed (наименее развитая) part of the psyche. the id plays a crucial role in shaping our thoughts, emotions, and behavior.

54
Q

Id

A

is the primitive, instinctual part of the psychea and reservoir of unconscious psychic energy (психической энергии) that, according to freud, strives (стремится) to satisfy basic sexual, aggressive drives, hunger, and thirst. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification (действует по принципу удовольствия, требуя немедленного удовлетворения).

“id” refers to one of the three components of Freud’s structural model of the psyche. the psyche (or human mind) is composed of three parts: the id, the ego, and the superego.
The id is not influenced by morality, and it seeks to satisfy its impulses without regard for the consequences (не обращая внимания на последствия).

the id appears from birth, it is the most primitive and least developed (наименее развитая) part of the psyche. the id plays a crucial role in shaping our thoughts, emotions, and behavior.

55
Q

ego

A

the rational and conscious part of the psyche that mediates between the demands of the id, superego, and the constraints of reality (выступает посредником между требованиями ид и ограничениями реальности). It seeks to satisfy the id’s impulses in a way that is socially acceptable and practical. The ego is responsible for problem-solving, decision-making, and planning, it is influenced by the external world and by internal processes: perception, memory, and learning.

the ego develops from the id and it is shaped by experiences during childhood and adolescence.

56
Q

Superego

A

represents the internalized (усвоенные) values, morals, and ideals of society and culture. It is the part of the psyche that holds us to high standards of behavior and morality, and that punishes us with feelings of guilt or shame. The superego is unconscious and, influences our behavior and decisions.

superego develops during childhood as a result of socialization and cultural conditioning. It is formed through the internalization of parental and societal values and morals, and it becomes a powerful force in shaping our thoughts, emotions, and behavior.

57
Q

psychosexual stages

A

the childhood stages of development:
1. oral: birth-18 months, 2. anal: 18 months-3 yrs, 3. phallic: 3-6.
during this stage, children may develop unconscious sexual desires towards their opposite-sex parent, known as the Oedipus complex and the Electra complex.
4. latency: 6-puberty (половое созревание). child’s sexual desires become suppressed (подавляются), they focus on learning and socializing.
5. genital: puberty onwards (далее).
the individual’s focus returns to the genitals.

During the childhood stages of development, the id’s pleasure-seeking focus on distinct erogenous zones. He emphasized that a child’s personality is formed by the ways in which his parents managed his sexual and aggressive drives.

58
Q

identification

A

is a psychological process described by Freud in his psychoanalytic theory. It refers to a child’s desire to emulate (подражать) and identify with their same-sex parent during the phallic stage of psychosexual development.

children incorporate (объединяют в себе) parent’s values into their developing superego.

59
Q

fixation

A

In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, fixation refers to the inability of an individual to progress normally from one stage of psychosexual development to the next. According to Freud, if a child experiences either excessive gratification or frustration at any stage of their psychosexual development, they may become fixated or “stuck” at that stage, and their development may be stopped. This fixation can result in personality traits and disorders.

For example, if a child experiences excessive gratification (чрезмерное удовлетворение) during the oral stage (birth-18 months), they may become fixated and develop an oral fixation that leads to adult behaviors such as smoking, overeating, or nail-biting.

60
Q

repression

A

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes (изгоняет) from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings and memories

61
Q

collective unconscious

A

carl jung’s concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces (хранилище памяти прослеживается) from our species’ history

62
Q

projective test

A

a personality test, such as the rorschach, that provides ambiguous images designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics

63
Q

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

A

is a projective psychological assessment tool that was developed by Henry Murray. The TAT is designed to reveal a person’s unconscious attitudes (предназначена для того, чтобы выявить бессознательные установки), motivations, and emotions through their interpretation of a series of ambiguous pictures.

participant is shown a series of black and white or color cards, each containing an ambiguous image, and is asked to create a story about what they see in the picture. The participant’s responses are then analyzed to identify themes, symbols, and other content that may reveal the participant’s unconscious thoughts and feelings.

The TAT is based on the psychodynamic theory.

64
Q

terror management theory

A

a social psychology theory that attempts to explain how people cope with the fear of death and the awareness of their own mortality. Developed by social psychologists Sheldon Solomon, Jeff Greenberg, and Tom Pyszczynski. natural fear of death motivates them to seek symbolic immortality through their culture, beliefs, and social connections.

According to TMT, people manage their fear of death by developing a sense of meaning and significance in their lives, which can come from various sources such as religion, social relationships, work, and achievements.

65
Q

hierarchy of needs

A

is a motivational theory developed by Abraham Maslow. pyramid.
1. Physiological needs
2. Safety needs
3. Love and belonging needs (to community)
4. Esteem needs: self-esteem, and the esteem of others
5. Self-actualization needs: realization of potential, including creativity, problem-solving, and personal growth.

66
Q

self-transcendence

A

Maslow believed that self-actualization, the highest level of needs in his hierarchy, involved a sense of self-transcendence.

“self-transcendence: - the highest level of human development: concern for the well-being of others and a sense of responsibility to the larger world.

67
Q

Unconditional positive regard (Безусловное позитивное отношение)

A

concept in humanistic psychology, which was developed by Carl Rogers. nonjudgmental, accepting, and supportive attitude towards others. Rogers believed that is a key factor in personal growth and development, and that it can help individuals achieve greater self-awareness, self-acceptance, and self-actualization.

68
Q

Self-concept

A

collection of beliefs, perceptions, and attitudes that individuals have about themselves. includes physical, social, emotional, and cognitive characteristics.

Self-concept is divided into two components: the self-image and the self-esteem. The self-image - way to perceive themselves, their physical appearance, personality traits, and social roles. The self-esteem: self-worth or self-acceptance (самоуважения или самопринятия).

69
Q

trait

A

stable characteristic or pattern of behavior, thought, or emotion that is consistent over time.

Traits are often measured using self-report questionnaires or other assessment tools that ask individuals to rate themselves on extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, openness to experience, and agreeableness.

Traits are thought to be influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors, and they can be influenced by social and cultural contexts as well.

70
Q

personality inventory (личностный анализ)

A

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to assess a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess personality traits

71
Q

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

A

a psychological assessment tool used to measure various aspects of an individual’s personality and mental health. It was developed by clinical psychologists J. McKinley and Starke Hathaway.

The MMPI is a self-report questionnaire that consists of 500 true/false questions. It is designed to measure a wide range of personality traits, emotional and behavioral problems, and mental health conditions: depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, and personality disorders.

The MMPI is used in hospitals.

72
Q

empirically derived test

A

based on large-scale statistical analysis of data.
The purpose of this test is to identify intelligence or personality traits.

a factor analysis of intelligence tests might reveal factors (выявить факторы) such as verbal comprehension (вербальное понимание), perceptual reasoning, and working memory.

73
Q

The social-cognitive perspective

A

The social-cognitive perspective is a theoretical framework in psychology that emphasizes the role of cognitive processes and social interactions in shaping behavior and personality.

74
Q

Reciprocal determinism (взаимный детерминизм)

A

a theory in psychology that explains how a person’s behavior is influenced by environment and how his behavior can influence their environment. The theory was developed by Albert Bandura. He proposed that behavior is shaped by the interaction between three factors: person, environment, and behavior.

reciprocal determinism suggests that a person’s behavior can also influence their own thoughts and feelings.

75
Q

self

A

the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings and actions

76
Q

spotlight effect (эффект прожектора)

A

overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating (оценивают) our appearance (внешность), performance (работоспособность), and blunders (оплошности) (as if we assume a spotlight shines on us)

77
Q

self-esteem

A

one’s feelings of high or low self worth

78
Q

self-efficiancy (самоэффективность)

A

one’s sense of competence (компетентности) and effectiveness

79
Q

self-serving bias

A

cognitive bias in which individuals tend to attribute their own positive outcomes to internal, personal factors (such as their abilities or efforts) and their negative outcomes to external, situational factors (such as bad luck or other people’s actions). This bias leads individuals to perceive themselves more positively than they may objectively deserve, and can result in overconfidence and an inflated (завышенной) self-image.

80
Q

Narcissism

A

personality trait characterized by a big sense of self-importance, a need for admiration (восхищении), and a lack of empathy for others. may have an exaggerated (преувеличенное) sense of their own abilities and achievements, feel entitled (вправе) to special treatment, and have fantasies of power, success, and beauty.

Narcissism is thought to arise from a combination of genetic and environmental factors. For example, individuals who experience excessive praise (чрезмерную похвалу) or criticism from parents may develop a heightened sense of self-importance or a need for validation. Similarly, cultural values that prioritize individual achievement and success may contribute to the development of narcissistic traits.

81
Q

the cognitive approach of personality

A

emphasizes the role of cognitive processes in shaping individuals’ thoughts, behaviors, and emotions. This approach views personality as a result of the way people think about their experiences.

emphasizes the importance of attention, perception, and memory, in shaping individuals’ perceptions. individuals who are more prone (склонны) to negative thinking patterns more likely to experience depression or anxiety, while those who have a more positive outlook may better able to cope with stress.

importance of self-regulation and self-control in shaping individuals’ behaviors and emotions. This includes the ability to set goals, monitor progress, and make adjustments as needed, as well as the ability to regulate emotions and cope with stress.

82
Q

George Kelly

A

one of the founders of the humanistic psychology movement (движения гуманистической психологии). He is known for theory of personal construct psychology (психология личностных конструктов), which emphasizes the role of individuals’ subjective experiences in shaping their perceptions and behaviors (роль субъективного опыта индивидов в формировании их восприятия и поведения).

Kelly’s theory of personal construct psychology suggests that individuals construct their own unique view of the world through their experiences and interactions with their environment.

83
Q

Personal Construct Theory

A

Kelly’s personality theory presents an optimistic, even flattering (лестная), image of human nature. He believed we are the authors, not the victims, of our destiny. We need no push from internal drives or needs because we are motivated by the fact of being alive. We observe the events of our life and interpret them in our own way.

individuals create mental constructs to help them understand and interpret their experiences.

individuals have the power to create and change their own mental constructs, which can lead to changes in behavior and personality.

84
Q

Construct

A

a person’s unique way of looking at life. Our psychological processes are directed (управляются) by our constructs, by the way each of us construes outworld (интерпретирует внешний мир). ex: you’re about to have a job interview and you anticipate it will be intimidating that is your construct. There are also constructs about things regarding ourselves (how likely we are to succeed, etc)