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Introduction and History Flashcards

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1
Q

What is Psychology?

A

It’s the scientific study (ology) of the mind (psych) and behavior.

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2
Q

What is the definition of “psych” ?

A

Psyche/soul/mind/private inner experiences

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3
Q

What is the definition of “ology” ?

A

The scientific study of…

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4
Q

What are some fields (7) of study in psychology?

A
  • brain
  • consciousness
  • memory
  • language
  • reasoning
  • personality
  • mental health
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5
Q

How do we experience the world ?

A

By our mind and our body/senses.

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6
Q

What is empiricism ?

A

L’idée selon laquelle tout apprentissage provient de l’expérience et des observations. C’ est quantifiable.

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7
Q

What is rationalism?

A

Knowledge comes from reason.

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8
Q

What is the mind made off?

A

An organ (brain) and the soul ( non-material essence of a person )

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9
Q

Why would happen if we didn’t have a mind?

A

There would be no analyzing, no judgment, only reacting.

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10
Q

In which field of study does psychology have its roots in?

A

Philosophy

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11
Q

What is nativism ?

A

The idea that we are born with some knowledge (allegorie de la caverne)

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12
Q

What is the allegory of la caverne an analogy for ?

A

For humans going through the world.

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13
Q

How come body/senses may hinder knowledge? Explain using the allegorie de la caverne.

A

Seeing shadows : “reality”
Difficult to change perception - feels safe

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14
Q

According to Aristotle, is the body a hindrance to knowledge?

A

No, when we think logically (rationalism), we use information we gather from our senses (empiricism).

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15
Q

What is teleology ?

A

The idea that everything has a function built to it - no need to believe in god - think about Les Lois de la physiques. There is a flow to life : death….

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16
Q

In what way is nature arranged ?

A

In a hierarchy ranging from neutral matter to the unmoved mover (the ultimate cause of everything in nature, it doesn’t change, it just causes other things to happen - Lois de la physique)

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17
Q

What are the four steps of reasoning ?

A

Sensory information ; common sense; passive reason; active reason

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18
Q

What is sensory information?

A

It’ s an isolated experience.

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19
Q

What is common sense?

A

It’s a synthesized experience (classical conditioning and reflexes )

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20
Q

What is passive reason ?

A

The utilization of synthesized experience.

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21
Q

What is active reason?

A

Thinking in dept - part of soul that provides humans with highest purpose.

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22
Q

How was Rene Descartes described as?

A

A nativist (innate ideas, even if you never learned about them, you would have some level of understanding about them), a rationalist ( humans are capable of higher order thinking - vérité absolue rather than religious beliefs or emotional response ), a phenomenologist (the scientific study of subjective experiences - your own conscious experience)

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23
Q

What are some examples innate ideas according to Descartes ?

A

Unity, infinity, perfection, axioms of geometry, God.

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24
Q

What did Descartes believe the nervous system was made up of?

A

A set of hollow tubes connecting the sense receptors (our sense organs) with cavities in the brain (the ventricles)

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25
Q

What are “animal spirits” according to Descartes, and what role do they play?

A

Invisible fluids that flow through the nerves, causing sensations and movement.

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26
Q

Did Descartes believe this process was the same for both animals and humans?

A

Yes, that’s why he called those invisible fluids “ animal spirits “ , to show that animals and humans are very similar when it comes to senses and reflexes. However, he thought that only humans had the ability to think rationally, which was separate from this physical process.

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27
Q

According to Descartes, who has a mind?

A

Only humans.

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28
Q

According to Descartes, what does the mind provide?

A

Consciousness, free will and rationality.

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29
Q

According to Descartes. Was the mind physical or nonphysical?

A

Nonphysical

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30
Q

According to Descartes, was the body physical or nonphysical?

A

Physical.

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31
Q

According to Descartes, can the nonphysical mind and physical body influence each other?

A

Yes in a part of the brain called the pineal gland.

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32
Q

What is the 17th Century characterized by?

A

By the “hard” Science influence (natural and physical sciences that study the universe), like physics, chemistry, biology…)

33
Q

What did Galilei discover and why did it have such an impact?

A

He discovered that the earth in not the center of the universe, the sun is. This had an impact, since in decentered humans, made us realize we are not that special (In the western world, the idea that humans were special was widespread)

34
Q

What analogy can we make with Galilei’s discovery?

A

Allegory of the cave: the world is bigger than we know.

35
Q

How is Newton’s discovery linked to psychology?

A

Newton’s work emphasized the importance of observation, experimentation, in understanding the natural world. Also, Some early thinkers believed that human behavior and mental processes could be understood in a similar cause-and-effect, mechanical manner—viewing the brain and mind as governed by natural laws, much like physical objects.

36
Q

What does “Zeitgeist was the spirit of mechanism”means?

A

It means that during this time period (which is from the 17th to the 19th centurie) people thought of everything, including humans and the world around them, like machines.

37
Q

What is determinism? Give some examples.

A

It’s the idea that acts are determined by external influence (biological determinism, social determinism, psychological determinism…).

it’s a form of mechanism: we are programmed by either our biology, our environment, our psychology….

38
Q

What is reductionism? Give an example.

A

It’s a simplification of a complex idea or phenomena into a simple one. For example, Humans and the Man-Machine idea: You’re broken, let’s fix you like we would do to a machine.

39
Q

What does the phrase: Universe as a Fine-Tuned Machine mean?

A

the universe’s properties seem incredibly precise and intentional, as if it were a well-built machine.

40
Q

what are the two main early approaches to understanding the mind and behavior (psychology).

A

Structuralism and Functionalism

41
Q

Who was Wilhelm Wundt?

A
  • one of the founders of psychology
  • He created the first laboratory for
    psychological research.
    * Introspection - Process by which someone examines their own conscious experience in an attempt to break it into its component parts (breaking down conscious experiences into their simplest or most fundamental aspects)

(trying to examine our conscious experience as objectively as possible, making the human mind like any other aspect of nature observed by a scientist (observations objectives - l’experience humaine = subjectivité)

42
Q

Who is the founder of Structuralism?

A

Edward Titchener (influencé par Wundt).

43
Q

What is Structuralism (3) and what did Edward Titchener believe the subject matter of psychology was?

A
  • Structuralism analyses the mind by breaking it down into its basic components (not the physical structure of the brain).
  • Structuralism meant removing the subjective to discover the objective (basic components). The goal was to find universal causes of psychological effects, un peu comme physicists trying to explore natural laws like gravity (universal laws)
  • Structuralism uses introspection in order to look into ourselves objectively.
  • Titchener believed the main topic of psychology was the conscious experience (et c’est cette dernière qui nous permettra de trouver les basic components of the mind)
44
Q

Why was structuralism considered “very dry” (too technical - remember the time period this was relevant) and is not relevant anymore today (however, people still use introspection) ?

A
  • Think of breaking a computer in parts : those individual parts are not a computer anymore. It’s the same with humans, we are the sum of all the things coming together to make us who we are.
  • Field of Psychology looking for something new & pragmatic ( “pragmatic” refers to an approach that is practical and focused on real-world results) AND Evolutionary theory gained a lot of attention
45
Q

Explain why: survival of the fittest = natural selection:

A

It means that the individuals best suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce.

46
Q

Why is evolution a result of natural selection?

A

Traits that are beneficial to our survival or reproductive success get passed on.

47
Q

According to Darwin’s theory, what is “fitness”?

A

The ability to survive and reproduce in its environment.

48
Q

According to Darwin’s theory, what is “adaptation”?

A

Any heritable trait that increases an organism’s ability to survive and reproduce.

49
Q

Can we say Darwin influenced functionalism?

A

Yes, because he believed that traits that are beneficial to our survival or reproductive success get passed on (There are traits that can help us better function in the world, think girafes: over time, girafes développer a long neck -> long neck, easier to reach for food -> it means that those girafes are the best, because they are fit)

50
Q

How are pregnant women an example of “fitness”?

A

Changes in the body enhance reproductive success.

51
Q

How is Darwin’s theory of evolution linked to eugenism?

A

Controlling reproduction to keep the fittest.

52
Q

Who is the anticipator of Functional psychology?

A

Wiliam James.

53
Q

What is Functionalism?

A

Functionalism is concerned with how the mind functions AS A WHOLE and how it is used by organisms to adapt to the environment. (It also includes animal psychology)

54
Q

What does functionalism focuses on?

A

It focuses and practical, real-world consequences. ( meaning this approach emphasizes understanding mental processes and behaviours based on their usefulness and impact in everyday life (leurs conséquences)).

It also focuses on the description and measurement of individual differences (this psychological approach emphasizes understanding how and why people differ from one another in their thoughts, behaviours, and experiences).

En gros, It asks what does the mind do and how does it do it.

55
Q

Why can we say functionalism is linked to the theory of evolution.

A

Because functionalism relies heavily on the idea that all behaviour is based on an evolutionary benefit. For example, anxiety is so common because it always us to always be on guard, so that we would be better able to respond and survive to threats.

ATTENTION CONTRE-EXEMPLES:
behaviour such as
- texting and driving
- consuming substances….

So… Functionalism cannot explain all behaviour (not all behaviour is for a evolutionary benefit)

56
Q

1890: A new look at consciousness. What does a “stream of consciousness” mean? (still in relation to James)

A
  • a person’s thoughts and conscious reactions to events, perceived as a continuous flow

Other definition:
-It’s the idea that consciousness (thoughts and reactions) is a continually flowing process and any attempt to reduce it to elements will distort it (take it as a whole).

57
Q

What are 5 characteristics of a “stream of consciousness”? (still with James)

A
  • Personal to the individual
  • Continuous; cannot be divided up for analysis (it’s a whole experience, we are always thinking or feeling something)
  • Always changing
  • Selective (some events are selected for further consideration while others are not)
  • FUNCTIONAL : purpose is to aid the individual in adapting to the environment.
58
Q

What are two new areas of focus determined by William James?

A
  • THE SELF AS A KNOWER.
    “The self as a knower” means being aware of who you are based on your experiences and what you know about yourself. It’s about recognizing your thoughts, feelings, and actions as part of your identity (EMPIRICAL SELF: ANSWERS THE QUESTION WHO AM I?)
    - James is one of the firsts to examine self-esteem : écart entre le soi-réel (understanding who you are) et le soi idéal (who you want to be).
  • HABIT:
    Repetitive actions involve the nervous system and serve to increase the plasticity of neural matter (when you do something over and over again, your brain gets better at it. In fact, the brain changes and adapts making the connections for that specific task stronger)

** link to addiction: when someone engages in a behaviour repeatedly, like substance use, the brain’s neural connections strengthen, making it easier to perform that behavior and harder to stop, because the brain prioritize these habits.

59
Q

What is the James-Lange theory of emotions?

A

Theory of Emotions before: external event - emotions - physiological reaction

James-Lange theory of emotions: external event (stimulus) - physiological reaction (gives nervous system a cue) - emotion (you interpret these physical changes as an emotion)
- this shows that emotions are not just reactions to external events but are also influenced by internal processes, such as thoughts and beliefs. Emotions are not purely automatic responses, they can be shaped by how we interpret situations. EXAMPLE: seeing a menacing dog, not everyone is gonna have the same reaction for example fear (fear is not an automatic and universal response to seeing a menacing dog, if someone likes dogs, they might not feel fear).

60
Q

Which early approach is dissolved but can be seen in almost all areas of Psychology?

A

Functionalism: it allows us to get an insight and a pursuit of how we can live better.

Explication:
Functionalism helps us understand how our thoughts and behaviors work together, showing us what we need to improve in our lives. By looking at how different parts of our mind and actions function, we can find ways to live happier and healthier.

Example:
Stress Management:
Insight: Functionalism might show us that stress is a natural response that helps us react to challenges.
Improvement: By understanding this, we can learn stress management techniques, like deep breathing or mindfulness, to handle stress more effectively.

61
Q

What is behaviourism? (John B. Watson)

A

Behaviorism focuses directly on observable behavior and try to bring that behaviour under control (the goal is to make the behavior predictable and modifiable by controlling the factors that influence it, think classical and operant conditioning).

62
Q

Why is behaviorism considered to be a revolt against consciousness?

A

Because Watson thought that the study of consciousness was flawed. He believed that objective analysis of the mind was impossible. He wanted to “empirically” study Psychology, meaning focusing on what is experienced or seen, rather than on theory.

63
Q

For behaviorism, are thoughts studied?

A

No, since they can’t be seen,

64
Q

Is behviorism a form of environment determinism ?

A

Yes, Watson believed that behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment, notably by conditioning.

“Give me a kid and I’ll make him into a lawyer or a thief”: emphasis on the importance of environment.

65
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

Unconditioned response: This is a natural, automatic reaction to an unconditioned stimulus (US) that occurs without prior learning or conditioning. It’s an innate response.

No conditioned response: The stimulus (neutral stimulus) hasn’t been linked to a response through learning

BEFORE CONDITIONING:

Unconditioned stimulus (ex: food) —> unconditioned response (ex: salivation)

Neutral stimulus (ex: bell) —> No conditioned response (ex: no salivation)

DURING CONDITIONING:

Neutral stimulus (ex: bell) + unconditioned stimulus (ex: food) —> unconditioned response (ex: salivation)

AFTER CONDITIONING:

Conditioned stimulus (ex: bell) —> conditioned response (ex: salivation)

66
Q

What famous experiment did John B. Watson conduct?

A

The Little Albert Experiment. He tried to install a phobia of animals in a baby using loud sounds. He wanted to show that we are not born with fears and that phobias and fears are classical conditioning (not biologicsal, logical only caused by the environment).

EXPERIENCE:
First, they presented a white rat to the boy and observed that he was not afraid of it. Second, they showed him a white rat and then clanged an iron rod. “Little Albert” responded by crying. This second presentation was repeated several times. Finally, the researchers introduced the white rat by itself and the boy showed fear.
Later, in an attempt to see if the fear transferred to other objects, Watson presented Albert with a rabbit, a dog, and a fur coat. “Little Albert” cried at the sight of all of them.[5]

67
Q

Who was the father of operant conditioning and what was his goal?

A

B.F. Skinner, and he wanted to study how behaviour was affected by its consequences (reinforcement or punishment)

68
Q

What is Operant Conditioning? Give an example and talk about the screaming kid who wanted a cookie at the grocery store.

A

It’s a voluntary behavior.

C (comportement) —> S (stimulus qui est la conséquence) —> R (réponse dont la prevalence augmente ou diminue)

AJOUT D’UN STIMULUS: conséquence est qqch de nouveau dans la situation

RETRAIT D’UN STIMULUS:
conséquence est d’enlever quelque chose.

EXAMPLE: un enfant taquine sa soeur et l’a fait pleurer.

Sa mère lui donne une fessée

L’enfant ne taquine plus jamais sa soeur.

SCREAMING KID:

social work: explain tot the child why…

Operant conditioning would say that it would be validating bad behavior.

69
Q

What is Gestalt Psychology (give an example) and who were the founders?

A
  • Kohler, Koffka and Wertheimer were German psychologists
  • contredit le structuralisme
  • Gestalt–“Whole”
  • Based on the idea that although a sensory experience can be broken down into individual parts, how those parts relate to each other as a whole is often what the individual responds to in perception. For example, a song may be made up of individual notes played by different instruments, but the real nature of the song is perceived in the combination of these notes as they form the melody, rhythm and harmony.
  • Ideas of Gestalt continue to influence research on sensation and perception.
70
Q

What is the Gestalt Revolt ?

A

CONTRE STRUCTURALISME
Accepted the value of consciousness while criticizing the attempt to reduce it to atoms or elements (Wundt and his vision on introspection)

CONTRE BEHAVIORISM:
* Opposed S→R associations

  • explication:
    human perception and behavior could not be fully explained by breaking down experiences into isolated stimulus-response pairs.

Instead, they believed that humans perceive and respond to wholes or patterns (gestalts), rather than individual stimuli in a linear cause-and-effect manner. For example, when we look at a complex image, we perceive the overall shape and structure, rather than just a collection of individual elements.

71
Q

What is the Cognitive Revolution?

A
  • By the 1950’s, new disciplinary perspectives in linguistics, neuroscience, and computer science were emerging.
  • The mind became the new focus of scientific inquiry.
72
Q

What is psychoanalysis?

A

An attempt to study the mind from Freud’s perspective.

73
Q

What was the response to Psychoanalysis?

A

Contrary to Freud’s dark view of humanity…..
* Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers: Pioneered (created) a new movement:
- Humanistic psychology: Approach to understanding human nature that emphasizes the positive potential (idée de s’accomplir) of human beings.

74
Q

What is Maslow’s view of humanism?

A

*Proposed a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior.

  • Maslow asserted that so long as basic needs necessary for survival were met (e.g., food, water, shelter), higher-level needs (e.g., social needs) would begin to motivate behavior.

ATTENTION, the Hierarchy of Needs can be problematic : going for different needs at the same time (not necessarily a sequence), some people might start with a need installé higher first, like self-esteem, even without the lower ones being fulfilled.

75
Q

What is Carl Rogers’ approach to Humanism?

A
  • Carl Rogers developed a client- centered therapy method that has been influential in clinical settings (safe place in comparison to Freud’s approach)
  • Client-centered therapy involves the patient taking a lead role in the therapy session.
  • To maximize effectiveness, Rogers believed therapists need:
  • unconditional positive regard - genuineness
  • empathy
  • I’m happy, but how can I become happier*
76
Q

What is Developmental Psychology and who’s the father?

A

Jean Piaget is famous for his theories regarding changes in cognitive ability that occur as we move from infancy to adulthood.

  • Developmental psychology studies the physical and mental attributes of aging and maturation.
  • This can include various skills that are acquired throughout growth.
  • MoralReasoning
  • Cognitive Skills
  • SocialSkills
77
Q

What is Personality Psychology?

A
  • Focuses on behaviors and thought patterns that are unique to each individual.
  • Studies in this field include conscious and unconscious thinking and identifying personality traits.

THINK OCEAN (FIVE FACTOR MODEL OF PERSONALITY). low score to high score in each characteristic.

78
Q

What is Social Psychology?

A

How individuals interact and relate with others and how such interactions can affect behavior.

Themes:
- Prejudice
- Attraction
- Interpersonal conflicts
- Obedience

Stanley Milgram’s research (dans le temps de la deuxième guerre mondiale, nazis) showed how far people will go in obeying orders from an authority figure.

In the experiment, participants were told to deliver electric shocks to another person (who was actually an actor and not really being shocked) whenever they answered a question incorrectly. As the shocks increased in intensity, many participants continued to obey the experimenter’s instructions, even when they thought they were causing serious harm. The study showed that people were surprisingly willing to follow orders from an authority figure, even if it meant hurting others, which raised ethical concerns about how far obedience can go.

79
Q

What is Health Psychology?

A
  • Branch that focuses on how individual health is directly related or affected by biological, psychological, and sociocultural influences.
  • The biopsychosocial model suggests that health/illness is determined by an interaction of these three factors.

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