Consciousness

Question 1

What is consciousness?

Answer 1

awareness of internal and external stimuli such as feelings of hunger and pain or detection of light. It includes self-awareness.

Question 2

What is wakefulness?

Answer 2

high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior. In other words, being alert, being able to process all this information

Question 3

What is Freud’s vision of unconscious VS the modern view on consciousness?

Answer 3

Freud’s unconscious:
* Dynamic unconscious: Active system, hidden memories, instincts and desires, and the person’s inner struggle to control these forces; described by Freud
* Repression: Removes unacceptable thoughts and memories from consciousness

Modern:
* Cognitive unconscious: Mental processes that give rise to a person’s thoughts, choices, emotions, and behaviour even though they are not experienced by the person

Question 4

What are Freud’s level of consciousness?

Answer 4

Three levels of mind that he represented by an iceberg: We really only see the tip of the iceberg (small portion), while the mass is hidden.

1. The Conscious Mind: The conscious mind contains all of the thoughts, memories, feelings, and wishes of which we are aware at any given moment.
2. The Preconscious Mind: Thoughts are preconscious when they are unconscious at a particular moment, but are not repressed. They’re accessible. (example: memory -> recalling it goes to the conscious mind)
3. The Unconscious Mind:
   the unconscious mind stores all the thoughts, memories, and feelings that are disturbing or traumatic. Includes the ID: id is the primitive, impulsive part of our psyche driven by instincts and desires. ID is immediate gratification, Eros (life, love, reproduction), Thanatos ( death, destruction, violence).

He says the unconscious is dynamic because even if they are repressed, they still wanna come out.

** He thought dreams was the way to gain access to the unconscious.

Question 5

What is the problem with Freud’s theory of consciousness.

Answer 5

It cannot be proved right nor wrong.

Question 6

What are Jung’s (Freud student, but they parted ways) three levels of consciousness.

Answer 6

1. The ego (or conscious mind): YOU, not pride. It contains our conscious awareness of existing and a continuing sense of personal identity.It is the organiser of our thoughts and intuitions, feelings, sensations, and has access to memories not repressed.
2. The personal unconscious: memories and impulses, forgotten events.
   ‘Everything of which I know, but of which I am not at the moment thinking; everything of which I was once conscious but have now forgotten; everything perceived by my senses, but not noted by my conscious mind; everything which, involuntarily and without paying attention to it, I feel, think, remember, want, and do; all the future things which are taking shape in me and will sometime come to consciousness; all this is the content of the unconscious’
   ‘Besides these we must include all more or less intentional repressions of painful thought and feelings. I call the sum of these contents the “personal unconscious”’
3. The collective unconscious.
   The collective uncouscious is shared by all humans (suggesting that we are all connected)

• Sharing an understanding of certain concepts that he calls archetypes. He believed that there should be a similar understanding of a certain concept no matter the culture… (also ma pensée: statut socioéconomique pourrait jouer un rôle aussi)

EXAMPLE:

Archetypal types: definition of mother (first words that come to mind): nurturing, life, warmth…

Heroes: strong, powerful

Archetypal events: birth, death

Archetypal objects: Water, sun, moon, snakes….

Another example given in class:
having a persona (depending on different context)

Question 7

What is a biological rhythm and what does it include?

Answer 7

A biological rhythm: internal cycle of biological activity

Includes:
- Fluctuation of body temperature (vers la fin du soir la temperature de notre corps diminue to get us ready for bed: As your body cools, your pineal gland, located in your brain, releases rising amounts of the hormone melatonin)

• Menstrual cycle.
• Levels of alertness (also follow the 24 hours cycle)

** keep in mind: like doesn’t always honour our biological rhythms.

Question 8

What is the circadian rhythm?

Answer 8

The biological rhythm that occurs over approximately 24 hours (le rythme circadien regroupe tous les processus biologiques cycliques d’une durée d’environ 24 heures).

Question 9

What are the brains areas involved in consciousness for sleep? What are their roles?

Answer 9

** keep in mind: a lot of it starts in the eyes, since they are light sensitive.

• Hypothalamus: homeostasis
• Pituitary gland (here because pineal gland is used)
• Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN): located in the hypothalamus, if it doesn’t get enough light, it sends the signal that it is nighttime. En gros, the axons of light-sensitive neurons in the retina provide information to the SCN based on the amount of light present, allowing this internal clock to be synchronized with the outside world.

Also known as the brain’s clock mechanism.

• Pineal gland: Produces melatonine, a hormone that stimulates sleep (grosse difference avec ce qu’en pensait Descartes)

Question 10

What is sleep?

Answer 10

State marked by relatively low physical activity and a reduced sense of awareness.

Sleep-wake cycles controlled by multiple brain areas including the thalamus and hypothalamus (slow-wave sleep) and the pons (REM sleep).

Sleep is associated with the secretion and regulation of many hormones including:
- Melatonin
- Follicle stimulating hormone ( has a powerful effect on sexual development and fertility.)
- Luteinizing hormone (La LH est associée à l’ovulation chez la femme et à la production de testostérone chez l’homme.)
- Growth hormone.

*** that’s why sleep is so important for teens and children.

Question 11

Why do we sleep? 3 reasons

Answer 11

Adaptive Function (Evolutionary Hypotheses):

-Restore ressources that are expended during the day.

• Predatory risks

Cognitive Function
- sleep is important for cognitive function and memory formation.

Benefits of sleep (lowering stress levels, improving mood…)

Question 12

What is sleep regulation?

Answer 12

The brain’s control of switching between sleep and wakefulness as well as coordinating this cycle with the outside world.

Question 13

What is sleep debt?

Answer 13

The result of insufficient sleep on a chronic basis.

Question 14

What is sleep rebound?

Answer 14

A sleep deprived individual will tend to take a shorter time to fall asleep during subsequent opportunities for sleep:
This means that a person who is lacking sleep will usually fall asleep more quickly when they get the chance to sleep again. Essentially, their body is more ready for sleep because it needs rest.

Question 15

What is the minimal amount of sleep needed for the body to function throughout the day?

Answer 15

Min of 4 hours.

Question 16

What is sleep deprivation associated with?

Answer 16

Sleep deprivation is associated with obesity, increased blood pressure, increased levels of stress hormones and reduced immune functioning.

Question 17

What is the link between sleep deprivation and alcohol intoxication?

Answer 17

Some research suggests that sleep deprivation affects cognitive and motor function as much as, if not more than, alcohol intoxication.

Question 18

What can happen with fewer than four hours of sleep?

Answer 18

Irritability, distractibility and impairments in cognitive and moral judgment.

Question 19

What can happen when a person stays awake for 48 consecutive hours?

Answer 19

They could start to hallucinate.

Question 20

How can we differentiate sleep stages?

Answer 20

By change in brainwave activity (frequency and amplitude), that can be visualized using EEG (Remember the thing for brain electrical movement).

Question 21

When awake, our bain is dominated by which waves?

Answer 21

Beta waves: highest frequency and lowest amplitude

frequency = how many brain waves occur in one second (Hertz)

Amplitude = height of the brain wave

Question 22

What does REM stand for?

Answer 22

Rapid eye movement

Question 23

How do brain waves during REM sleep look like?

Answer 23

They look alike to those during wakefulness

Question 24

How many stages are there in the non-REM sleep?

Answer 24

Three stages :

STAGE ONE: begins with ALPHA waves and moves to THETA waves
The waves resemble that of someone who is very relaxed, yet awake , but they have less variability (are more synchronized) .

STAGE 2: THETA WAVES

As we move into stage 2 sleep, the body goes into a state of deep relaxation. Theta waves still dominate the activity of the brain, but they are interrupted by brief bursts of activity known as sleep spindles (Figure 4.9). A sleep spindle is a rapid burst of higher frequency brain waves that may be important for learning and memory (Fogel & Smith, 2011; Poe, Walsh, & Bjorness, 2010). In addition, the appearance of K-complexes is often associated with stage 2 sleep. A K-complex is a very high amplitude pattern of brain activity that may in some cases occur in response to environmental stimuli.

STAGE 3: DELTA
NREM stage 3 sleep is often referred to as deep sleep or slow-wave sleep because this stage is characterized by low frequency (less than 3 Hz), high amplitude delta waves (Figure 4.10). These delta waves have the lowest frequency and highest amplitude of our sleeping brain wave patterns. During this time, an individual’s heart rate and respiration slow dramatically, and it is much more difficult to awaken someone from sleep during stage 3 than during earlier stages. Interestingly, individuals who have increased levels of alpha brain wave activity (more often associated with wakefulness and transition into stage 1 sleep) during stage 3 often report that they do not feel refreshed upon waking, regardless of how long they slept

Question 25

What are ALPHA, THETA and DELTA waves?

Answer 25

Alpha – relatively low frequency, relatively high amplitude, synchronized.

Theta – low frequency, low amplitude.

Delta – low frequency, high amplitude, more synchronized

Question 26

What does research say about sleep? (we go for easier explanations, since many other explanations are not testable nor falsifiable)

Answer 26

• Dreams may represent life events that are important to the dreamer.
• State of protoconsciousness (virtual reality model that simulates scenarios or environments that help us understand and explore our thoughts, emotions, and experiences while we sleep)
• Lucid dreams – certain aspects of wakefulness are maintained during a dreaming state.

Question 28

How does Freud go on about the idea of dreams?

Answer 28

• Manifest content – the actual
  content of the dream. (ex: I dreamt a demon was sitting on my chest)
• Latent content – the hidden meaning of the dream. ( it could be your sins laying on you)

Question 29

How does Carl Jung go on about the idea of dreams?

Answer 29

• Believed that dreams allowed us to tap into the collective unconscious.
• Believed that certain symbols in dreams reflected universal archetypes.

Question 30

What is a physiological dependance?

Answer 30

It involves changes in normal bodily functions and withdrawal upon cessation of use.

Question 31

What is a psychological dependance?

Answer 31

it’s an emotional need for the drug (emotional cause it can give a sense of connection)

Question 32

What is tolerance a drug (or drugs) ?

Answer 32

Tolerance occurs when a person requires more of a drug to achieve effects previously experienced at lower doses.

• Our body adapts to those drugs (as we do this consistently, it’s likely going to take away some of the receptor in the post-synaptic cell, which means your body will want that high more and more. Fewer receptors mean that the brain is less responsive to the drug’s effects. When you take the drug, the reduced number of receptors makes it harder to achieve the same feelings of pleasure or euphoria as before. As a result, the body may crave more of the drug to try to get that high again.

Question 33

What is withdrawal?

Answer 33

• negative symptoms experienced when drug use is discontinued.
• A form of homeostatis because our bodies get used to it, so without it, you are going to feel out of it.

-

Question 34

Addiction to drugs and operant conditioning.

Answer 34

Operant conditioning is not always true: people can continue substance use even if iy has negative consequences .

Question 35

What happens when we look at substance use disorders in a neurological pow?

Answer 35

It makes it less “grave”, when it isn’t at all.

Question 36

What are the four drug categories?

Answer 36

1. Antipsychotics: meant to decrease the effect of dopamine. They are not connected to the other 3 categories.
2. Stimulants: increase the effects of dopamine
3. Depressants: slow down your system, make you feel more relaxed.
4. Hallucinogens: (see beyond what is there, taste colours…stuff like that

Question 37

What are stimulants? What are some examples of stimulants?

Answer 37

Stimulants: they increase overall levels of neural activity (you work faster, you speak faster)

** They are a dopamine agonist: mimic similar effect, help produce it.

Examples:
Cocaine (agonist: blocks the reuptake of dopamine by binding to autoreceptors: alors cerveau en demande tjr plus et plus et plus)

Amphetamine

Cathinones (i.e., bath salts)

MDMA

Caffeine (Antagonist to adenosine)

Nicotine: Nicotine exerts its effects through its interaction with acetylcholine receptors. Acetylcholine functions as a neurotransmitter in motor neurons. In the central n
ervous system, it plays a role in arousal and reward mechanisms

Question 38

How do depressants work?

Answer 38

A depressant is a drug that tends to suppress central nervous system activity. Other depressants include barbiturates and benzodiazepines. These drugs share in common their ability to serve as agonists of the gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmitter system. Because GABA has a quieting effect on the brain, GABA agonists also have a quieting effect; these types of drugs are often prescribed to treat both anxiety and insomnia.

The GABA-gated chloride (Cl–) channel is embedded in the cell membrane of certain neurons. The channel has multiple receptor sites where alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines bind to exert their effects. The binding of these molecules opens the chloride channel, allowing negatively-charged chloride ions (Cl–) into the neuron’s cell body. Changing its charge in a negative direction pushes the neuron away from firing; thus, activating a GABA neuron has a quieting effect on the brain.

LINK WITH ACTION POTENTIAL:
something negative coming in the cell membrane and makes the membranes’s potential even more negative (instead of sodium coming in and allowing an action potential) : doesn’t allow an action potential. This makes the system go into a refractory period where everything is slowed down.

Question 39

How do opioids work? (part of depressants and hallucinogens)

Answer 39

Highly addictive.

DIAPOS:
help us feel good: work on the endorphine system (pain relief)

Reasons why these are highly addictive :
- your system looses receptors so it makes you want more and more (agonists).
- It becomes hard to differentiate between physical pain and emotional pain because they give a numbing effect.
- can also give a level of reward (dopamine)

LIVRE:

• Natural opioids, called opiates, are derivatives of opium, which is a naturally occurring compound found in the poppy plant. There are now several synthetic versions of opiate drugs (correctly called opioids) that have very potent painkilling effects, and they are often abused.
• Opioids are considered agonists because they activate opioid receptors in the brain. When they bind to these receptors, they mimic the effects of natural pain-relieving chemicals in the body, leading to pain relief and feelings of euphoria:

An opioid is one of a category of drugs that includes heroin, morphine, methadone, and codeine. Opioids have analgesic properties; that is, they decrease pain. Humans have an endogenous opioid neurotransmitter system—the body makes small quantities of opioid compounds that bind to opioid receptors reducing pain and producing euphoria. Thus, opioid drugs, which mimic this endogenous painkilling mechanism, have an extremely high potential for abuse.

• Historically, heroin has been a major opioid drug of abuse (Figure 4.17). Heroin can be snorted, smoked, or injected intravenously. Heroin produces intense feelings of euphoria and pleasure, which are amplified when the heroin is injected intravenously. Following the initial “rush,” users experience 4–6 hours of “going on the nod,” alternating between conscious and semiconscious states. Heroin users often shoot the drug directly into their veins. Some people who have injected many times into their arms will show “track marks,” while other users will inject into areas between their fingers or between their toes, so as not to show obvious track marks and, like all abusers of intravenous drugs, have an increased risk for contraction of both tuberculosis and HIV.
• Methadone is a synthetic option that is less euphorigenic than heroin and similar drugs. Methadone clinics help people who previously struggled with opioid addiction manage withdrawal symptoms through the use of methadone.
• Codeine is an opioid with relatively low potency, it is often prescribed for minor pain, and is even available over-the-counter in some countries. Like all opioids, codeine also has abuse potential.

Question 40

How do hallucinogens work?

Answer 40

• They affect sensation and perception.
• Hallucinogens are incredibly varied in terms of the neurotransmitter systems they affects.
• Mescaline and LSD (serotonin agonists).
• PCP and ketamine (NMDA glutamate receptor antagonists).

**In general these drugs don’t have the same level of abuse potential as the other ones.

Question 41

What are two other states of consciousness?

Answer 41

Hypnosis and meditation.

Question 42

What is hypnosis?

Answer 42

• Hypnosis is an extreme focus on the self that involves suggested changes of behavior and experience.
• Relaxation and suggestion to alter the thoughts and perceptions of a patient.
• Used to draw out information believed
  to be buried in someone’s memory.

*** can be a useful way to deal with abuse, trauma..,

*** brain waves are kind of the same as the ones when you start sleeping, but you are still awake!!

Question 43

What is meditation?

Answer 43

• Meditation is the act of focusing on a single target such as breath or a repeated sound to increase awareness of the moment. (during covid: active meditation (repetitive moves such as making bread, knitting…)
• Meditation involves relaxed, yet focused, awareness.
• Shows promise in stress management, sleep quality, pain management and treatment of mood and anxiety disorder.

Question 44

Can anyone be hypnotized?

Answer 44

No. Someone who is open to new experiences will be easy to hypnotize but someone who is more conservative no.

Question 45

What is insomnia ?

Answer 45

Insomnia, a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep, is the most common of the sleep disorders. Individuals with insomnia often experience long delays between the times that they go to bed and actually fall asleep. In addition, these individuals may wake up several times during the night only to find that they have difficulty getting back to sleep. As mentioned earlier, one of the criteria for insomnia involves experiencing these symptoms for at least three nights a week for at least one month’s time (Roth, 2007).

It is not uncommon for people suffering from insomnia to experience increased levels of anxiety about their inability to fall asleep. This becomes a self-perpetuating cycle because increased anxiety leads to increased arousal, and higher levels of arousal make the prospect of falling asleep even more unlikely. Chronic insomnia is almost always associated with feeling overtired and may be associated with symptoms of depression.

People who suffer from insomnia might limit their use of stimulant drugs (such as caffeine) or increase their amount of physical exercise during the day. Some people might turn to over-the-counter (OTC) or prescribed sleep medications to help them sleep, but this should be done sparingly because many sleep medications result in dependence and alter the nature of the sleep cycle, and they can increase insomnia over time.

Question 46

What is a parasomnia?

Answer 46

includes: sleep-walking, REM sleep behaviour disorder (RBD), restless leg syndrome, night terrors.

A parasomnia is one of a group of sleep disorders in which unwanted, disruptive motor activity and/or experiences during sleep play a role. Parasomnias can occur in either REM or NREM phases of sleep.

Question 47

What is sleepwalking?

Answer 47

In sleepwalking, or somnambulism, the sleeper engages in relatively complex behaviors ranging from wandering about to driving an automobile. During periods of sleepwalking, sleepers often have their eyes open, but they are not responsive to attempts to communicate with them. Sleepwalking most often occurs during slow-wave sleep, but it can occur at any time during a sleep period in some affected individuals.

Question 48

What is REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD)?

Answer 48

REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) occurs when the muscle paralysis associated with the REM sleep phase does not occur. Individuals who suffer from RBD have high levels of physical activity during REM sleep, especially during disturbing dreams. These behaviors vary widely, but they can include kicking, punching, scratching, yelling, and behaving like an animal that has been frightened or attacked. People who suffer from this disorder can injure themselves or their sleeping partners when engaging in these behaviors. Furthermore, these types of behaviors ultimately disrupt sleep, although affected individuals have no
memories that these behaviors have occurred.

This disorder is associated with a number of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s disease. In fact, this relationship is so robust that some view the presence of RBD as a potential aid in the diagnosis and treatment of a number of neurodegenerative diseases.

Question 49

What is the restless leg syndrome?

Answer 49

• A person with restless leg syndrome has uncomfortable sensations in the legs during periods of inactivity or when trying to fall asleep. This discomfort is relieved by deliberately moving the legs, which, not surprisingly, contributes to difficulty in falling or staying asleep.
• Associated with a number of other medical diagnoses, such as chronic kidney disease and diabetes. There are a variety of drugs that treat restless leg syndrome: benzodiazepines, opiates, and anticonvulsants

Question 50

What are night terrors?

Answer 50

Night terrors result in a sense of panic in the sufferer and are often accompanied by screams and attempts to escape from the immediate environment. Although individuals suffering from night terrors appear to be awake, they generally have no memories of the events that occurred, and attempts to console them are ineffective. Typically, individuals suffering from night terrors will fall back asleep again within a short time. Night terrors apparently occur during the NREM phase of sleep. Generally, treatment for night terrors is unnecessary unless there is some underlying medical or psychological condition that is contributing to the night terrors

Question 51

What is sleep apnea?

Answer 51

Sleep apnea is defined by episodes during which a sleeper’s breathing stops. These episodes can last 10–20 seconds or longer and often are associated with brief periods of arousal. While individuals suffering from sleep apnea may not be aware of these repeated disruptions in sleep, they do experience increased levels of fatigue. Many individuals diagnosed with sleep apnea first seek treatment because their sleeping partners indicate that they snore loudly and/or stop breathing for extended periods of time while sleeping. Sleep apnea is much more common in overweight people and is often associated with loud snoring. Surprisingly, sleep apnea may exacerbate cardiovascular disease. While sleep apnea is less common in thin people, anyone, regardless of their weight, who snores loudly or gasps for air while sleeping, should be checked for sleep apnea.

There are two types of sleep apnea: obstructive sleep apnea and central sleep apnea. Obstructive sleep apnea occurs when an individual’s airway becomes blocked during sleep, and air is prevented from entering the lungs. In central sleep apnea, disruption in signals sent from the brain that regulate breathing cause periods of interrupted breathing (White, 2005).
One of the most common treatments for sleep apnea involves the use of a special device during sleep. A continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) device includes a mask that fits over the sleeper’s nose and mouth, which is connected to a pump that pumps air into the person’s airways, forcing them to remain open. Some newer CPAP masks are smaller and cover only the nose. This treatment option has proven to be effective for people suffering from mild to severe cases of sleep apnea.

Question 52

What is the sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)?

Answer 52

In sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) an infant stops breathing during sleep and dies. Infants younger than 12 months appear to be at the highest risk for SIDS, and boys have a greater risk than girls. A number of risk factors have been associated with SIDS including premature birth, smoking within the home, and hyperthermia. There may also be differences in both brain structure and function in infants that die from SIDS.

The substantial amount of research on SIDS has led to a number of recommendations to parents to protect their children. For one, research suggests that infants should be placed on their backs when put down to sleep, and their cribs should not contain any items which pose suffocation threats, such as blankets, pillows or padded crib bumpers (cushions that cover the bars of a crib). Infants should not have caps placed on their heads when put down to sleep in order to prevent overheating, and people in the child’s household should abstain from smoking in the home. Recommendations like these have helped to decrease the number of infant deaths from SIDS in recent years.

Question 53

What is narcolepsy?

Answer 53

Unlike the other sleep disorders described in this section, a person with narcolepsy cannot resist falling asleep at inopportune times. These sleep episodes are often associated with cataplexy, which is a lack of muscle tone or muscle weakness, and in some cases involves complete paralysis of the voluntary muscles. This is similar to the kind of paralysis experienced by healthy individuals during REM sleep. Narcoleptic episodes take on other features of REM sleep. For example, around one third of individuals diagnosed with narcolepsy experience vivid, dream-like hallucinations during narcoleptic attacks.

Surprisingly, narcoleptic episodes are often triggered by states of heightened arousal or stress. The typical episode can last from a minute or two to half an hour. Once awakened from a narcoleptic attack, people report that they feel refreshed. Obviously, regular narcoleptic episodes could interfere with the ability to perform one’s job or complete schoolwork, and in some situations, narcolepsy can result in significant harm and injury (e.g., driving a car or operating machinery or other potentially dangerous equipment).

Unlike the other sleep disorders described in this section, a person with narcolepsy cannot resist falling asleep at inopportune times. These sleep episodes are often associated with cataplexy, which is a lack of muscle tone or muscle weakness, and in some cases involves complete paralysis of the voluntary muscles. This is similar to the kind of paralysis experienced by healthy individuals during REM sleep. Narcoleptic episodes take on other features of REM sleep. For example, around one third of individuals diagnosed with narcolepsy experience vivid, dream-like hallucinations during narcoleptic attacks.

Surprisingly, narcoleptic episodes are often triggered by states of heightened arousal or stress. The typical episode can last from a minute or two to half an hour. Once awakened from a narcoleptic attack, people report that they feel refreshed. Obviously, regular narcoleptic episodes could interfere with the ability to perform one’s job or complete schoolwork, and in some situations, narcolepsy can result in significant harm and injury (e.g., driving a car or operating machinery or other potentially dangerous equipment).