Introduction Flashcards
Measurement in Psychology
Developing adequate measures is essential for the advancement of psychology as a science. Without the ability to adequately measure intended constructs, it is difficult for scientists to conduct experiments, form theories, or improve interventions.
Why is there a need for measurement in psychology?
- To Quantify Behavior
- To determine frequencies, norms, etc.
- To know how and when?
How do you quantify behavior?
- Experimental (i.e., measuring reaction time)
- Measuring loneliness, happiness, anxiety,
depression… etc.
Inventory and Scales
indicates
measurement of variables.
Assessment
procedure to gather information
about people, consists of more than just testing
Factors of Tests
– Use of specific or systematic procedures
– Scoring of responses
– Sample of behavior
Test
type of assessment that uses specific procedures to obtain information and convert that information to a number or
scores.
Use of Specific or Systematic
Procedures
● Selecting a set of items or test
questions.
● Specifying conditions under
which the test is administered.
● Developing a system of scoring
and interpreting responses.
Scoring of Responses
Objective and Subjective Scoring
Objective Scoring
Responses are converted to
numbers by comparing them
to a list of possible answers.
Example of Objective Scoring
- Scaling
- Likert
Subjective Scoring
Answers are evaluated relative
to a set of scoringprocedures
Example of Subjective Scoring
- Interpretations
Sample of Behavior
Finite number of questions; sample of characteristics
Testing
the term used to refer to the process that covers the administration of a test to the interpretation of a test score.
Psychological Testing
The process of measuring psychology-related variables through the use of devices or procedures designed to obtain a sample of behavior.
Psychological Assessment
The collection and integration of psychology- related data for the use in a psychological evaluation that is accomplished through the use of tools such as tests, interviews, case studies, behavioral observations, and specially designed apparatuses and measurement procedure.
Objective of Psychological Testing
Typically, to obtain more gauge, usually numerical in nature, with regard to an ability or attribute.
Objective of Psychological Assessment
Typically, to answer a referral question, solve a problem, or arrive at a decision through the use of tools of evaluation.
Process of Psychological Testing
May be individual in nature.
After test administration, the tester will typically add up “the number of correct answers or the number of certain types of responses… with little, if any, regard for the how or mechanics of such content” (Maloney & Ward, 1976)
Process of Psychological Assessment
Typically individualized.
More typically focused on how an individual processes rather than simply the results of that processing.
Role of Evaluator in Psychological Testing
The tester is not a key to the process; practically speaking, one tester may be substituted for another tester without appreciably affecting the evaluation.
Role of Evaluator in Psychological Assessment
The assessor is the key to the process of selecting tests and/ or other tools of evaluation as well as in drawing conclusions from the entire evaluation.
Skill of Evaluator in Psychological Testing
Typically requires technician-skills in terms of administering and scoring a test as well as in interpreting a test result.
Skill of Evaluator in Psychological Assessment
Typically requires an educated selection of tools of evaluation, skill in evaluation, and thoughtful organization and integration of data.
Outcome of Psychological Testing
Typically, testing yields a test score or series of test scores.
Outcome of Psychological Assessment
Typically, assessment entails a logical problem-solving approach that brings to bear many sources of data designed to shed light on a referral question.
Process of Assesment
Referral for Assessment - Preparation of the Assessor - Formal Assessment - Assessment Report
Referral for Assessment
- Teacher, Judge, Clinician, Parent, HR, GC, Social Worker
- Referral Question
Preparation of the Assessor
- Meeting with the assessee or others
- Selecting appropriate tools
Formal Assessment
- Testing
- Interview (patient and sources)
- Case History
- Others
Assessment Report
Psychological Report Writing
Approaches to Assessment
- Collaborative
- Dynamic
Collaborative Psychological Assessment
- The assessor and assessee works as partners from initial contact to final feedback.
- May include therapy as part of the process:
Therapeutic Psychological Assessment
Therapeutic Psychological Assessment
therapeutic self-discovery and new understandings are encouraged throughout the assessment process
Dynamic Assessment
An interactive approach to psychological assessment that usually follows a model of:
* Evaluation
* Intervention of some sort
* Evaluation
Dynamic Assessment is used in:
- Educational
- Correctional
- Corporate
- Neuropsychological
- Clinical
Tools for Psychological Assessment
- Test
- interview
- Portfolio
- Case History Data
- Behavioral Observation
- Role Play Tests
- Use of Computers
Test
measuring device or procedure
Modifiers of Tests
Medical and Psychological Tests
Medical Tests
- Samples of Blood
- Samples of Tissue
- Samples of Fluids
Psychological Tests
device or procedure designed to measure psychological variables.
* Samples of Behavior
* Oral, Written,
Performance
* Elicited by a test
stimulus or
naturally occurring
Psychological Test: Differences
- Content
- Format
- Administration Procedures
- Scoring and Interpretation Procedures
- Technical Quality
Content
- Subject matter
- ”Focus”
- The case of the same purpose but differing in content:
- Personality Tests
- Different theoretical orientation
- Different operant differences
Format
- Form, plan, structure, arrangement, and layout of test items.
- Time limit.
- Form on which the test is administered.
- Pencil-and-paper, computerized
- Procedures in obtaining samples of behavior.
Administration Procedures
Individual
* Skills
* Tasks
* Knowledge
- TONI-3
* Group Administration
Scoring and Interpretation Procedures
- Score
- Code or summary statement
- Reflects the evaluation
- Scoring
- Process of assigning such evaluative codes or statements to performance on tests, tasks, interviews, or other behavior samples.
- Types of Scores
- Based from summing up or use of elaborate procedures.
- Cut Score
Cut Score
reference point, usually numerical, derived by judgment and used to divide a set of data into two or more classifications.
Technical Quality
Psychometric Soundness
* Psychometrics
* Validity
* Reliability
* Utility
Psychometrics
Science of Psychological Measurement.
Interview
“face-to-face talk”; method of gathering information through direct communication involving reciprocal exchange.
Interview in Psychology
- More than talking
- ”What is said and how it is said”
- Verbal and Non-verbal behavior
Body Language
- Eye movement/ contact
- Facial expression
- Gestures
- Dress/ Attire, Hygiene
Other forms of interview
- Telephone Interview
- Panel Interview
Portfolio
files containing one’s works
Examples of Portfolio
- Can be in film, canvas, paper, etc.
- Sample of one’s ability.
Case History Data
refers to records, transcripts, and other accounts in written, pictorial, or other form that preserve archival information, official and informal accounts, and other data and items relevant to an assessee.
Examples of Case History Data
- Files or excerpts from files stored in institutions.
- Letters, correspondences, new clippings, work samples, doodles, diary
Behavioral Observation
monitoring the actions of others or oneself by visual or electronic means while recording quantitative and/ or qualitative information regarding the actions.
Behavioral Observation is used as
a diagnostic aid, for selection purposes
Type of Behavioral Observation
Naturalistic and Controlled
Naturalistic Observation
observing the behavior as it occurs in the natural setting. Observe it as it happens/ occurs.
Controlled Observation
controlled laboratory setting, environment is designed and manipulated
Role Play Tests
acting an improvised or partially improvised part in a simulated situation.
A tool of assessment wherei assessees are directed to act as if they were in a particular situation.
Use of Computers
Social media activities, posts, timelines, etc.
Other Tools
- Fable assessment
- Videos
- Reenactments
- Use of Social Media
- Biofeedback
Parties Involved in Psychological Testing
- Test Developer
- Test User
- Test Taker
Test Develoier
- Test publishers
- Create and distribute instruments
(i.e., Pearson)
Test Users
- Professionals (i.e. clinicians, counselors, experimental, psychologists, HR).
- Qualification
Test User Levels
- Level A
- Level S
- Level B
- Level C
Level A Test User
no special qualifications.
Level S Test User
- Degree in the Health care Professions
- Training in the Use of Tests
Level B Test User
- 4 year degree in Counseling Psychology
- Completion of coursework in psychological testing
- License/ certification (use of tests)
Level C Test User
- Level B qualification
- Advanced professional degree
Test Taker
- Anyone who is the subject of an assessment or an evaluation.
- Psychological autopsy.
- Test takers differ in a continuum.
Factors(?) of Test Takers
Test anxiety: significance and reliability of results
Extent to which they understand and agree with the rationale for the
assessment
*Capacity and willingness to cooperate with the examiner or to
comprehend written test instructions
Amount of physical pain or emotional distress they are experiencing
Amount of physical discomfort brought on by not having had enough
to eat, having had too much to eat, or other physical conditions
More Test Taker Factors (?)
Extent to which they are alert and wide awake
Extent to which they are predisposed to agreeing or disagreeing when
presented with stimulus statements
Extent to which they have received prior coaching
*Importance they may attribute to portraying themselves in a good (or bad)
light
Extent to which they are ”lucky” and can “beat” the odds on a multiple-choice
achievement test
The Society-At-Large
- Society’s demand for “some way of organizing or systematizing the many-faceted complexity of individual differences”.
- As society changes, new tests are developed.
- Laws and legislations on testing.
- Court decisions.
The Society-At-Large (Other)
- Companies
- Organizations
- Governmental agencies
- Schools
- Clinics
Test Categories
- Classification
- Self-understanding
- Program Evaluation
- Scientific Inquiry
Uses
- Placement
- Rating
- Selection
- Competency and Proficiency
- Experiments
- Decision-making
- Diagnosis
- Predicting Behavior
- Outcome Evaluation
Settings
- Educational
- Clinical Setting
- Counseling Setting
- Geriatric Setting
- Business and Military Setting
- Governmental and Organization Credentialing
Educational Setting
- School Ability Tests
- Achievement Tests
- Diagnostic Tests
- Informal Evaluation
Clinical Setting
- Public, private, and military hospitals
- Inpatient and outpatient clinics
- Private-practice consulting rooms
- Schools
- Other institutions
- Diagnosis
- Intelligence tests, personality tests, neuropsychological tests, or other specialized instruments, depending on the presenting or suspected problem area.
Counseling Setting
- Schools, prisons, and government or privately owned institutions.
- Improvement of the assessee in terms of adjustment, productivity, or some related variable.
- Measures of social and academic skills and measures of personality, interest, attitudes, and values.
Geriatric Setting
- Cognitive, psychological, adaptive, or other functioning.
- Quality of Life Assessment
Business and Military Setting
- Careers: hiring, promotions, transfer, job satisfaction, and eligibility for further training.
- Engineering Psychology
- Customer Satisfaction
- Marketing and Promotions
Governmental and Organization Credentialing
- Licensing, certification, credentialing
- PRC — Board of Psychology
- PAP
Additional on Psychological Testing
- part of the assessment; process.
- laboratory (tests) literal
- test used to quantify a particular behavior.
- for group or individual.
- Testing is not always necessary
Additional on Psychological Assessment
- interpretation/ results
- diagnosis —> assessment for one individual only
- gathering of information
Battery of Test
- IQ, Personality, Emotional, Projective Test
Scoring Responses: yes or no - Use of specific or systematic procedures
- bawat procedures ay may interpretation:
> .70
< .98
A necessary combination of tests
IQ, Personality, Emotional, Projective Test
Administration
this happens when the client takes a test.
Series of Validation & Test Reliability
From multiple statements, it will narrow down; standardized.
Samples of Behavior
- tests to determine the level of specific behavior.
- Finite number of questions (limited numbers)
- More test items, much better
More test items, much better
Because some would still be removed during validation and revisions
In an interview…
- Affect is equal to emotions.
- Affect is non-congruent or aligned to the statement.
- Body language is:
- 30% verbal
- 70% non-verbal
- Needs to have a reciprocal exchange.
In case histry data…
One must look for a case history or a previous case that can be compared to the case of the present client.
Conducting Assessments
- Tests Standards
- Responsible test users have obligations
before, during, and after a test or any
measurement procedure is administered
Pre-test Preparation
- Safe-keeping of tests
- Training on test administration
- Familiarity with the
- tests and materials
- Room/Venue
Test and Materials
- Stopwatch
- Supply of Pencils
- Test Protocols
Room/Venue
- Temperature
- Lighting
- Noise
- People
During the Testing
- Establishing Rapport
- a working relationship between the examiner and the examinee
Rapport
a close and harmonious relationship in which the people or groups concerned are “in sync” with each other, understand each other’s feelings or ideas, and communicate smoothly.
Post-test Responsibilites
- Safeguarding Tests Protocols
- Scoring
- Interpretation
- Note-taking of everything that
happened – even people present - Conveying tests results in a clearly
understandable way
Assessment of People with Disabilities – Alternate Assessment
an evaluative or diagnostic procedure or process that varies from the usual, customary, or standardized way a measurement is derived either by virtue of some special accommodation made to the assessee or by means of alternative methods designed to measure the same variable(s).
Consider in Alternate Assessment
- Accommodation (adapt, adjust, or make suitable” of the assessee
Accommodation
may be defined as the adaptation of a
test, procedure, or situation, or the substitution of one test for another, to make the assessment more suitable for an assessee with exceptional needs
Example of Alternate Assessment
- Large Print, Audio Format, Braille,
Sources of Information
- TEST CATALOGUES
- TEST MANUALS
- REFERENCE VOLUMES
- JOURNAL ARTICLES
- ON-LINE DATABASES
- LIBRARY
Properties/Characteristics of a Good Psychological Test
- Design Properties
- Psychometric Properties
Design Properties
1: A good test has a
clearly defined purpose.
2: A good test has a
specific and standard content.
3: A good test has a set
of administration Procedures.
4: A good test has a
standard scoring procedure.
Psychometric Properties
1: A good test is
reliable.
2: A good test is valid.
3: A good test contains
items with good item statistics.
Characteristics of a Good Psychological Test
- Objective
- Standardized
- Reliable
- Valid
- Good Predictive Value
Objective
Freedom from the subjective influence of the examiner
Standardized
Uniformity in the administration and interpretation of results
Reliable
Consistency of the scores
Valid
Concerns with what the test measures and how well it does
Measuring Psychological Charateristics
- Psychological Measurement is Less Precise
- Psychological Measurement is Less Direct
Psychological Measurement is Less Precise
– Psychological tests measures only a sample of the property under study; inference
– Psychological Measurement uses a more
limited scale
– Psychological Measurement is affected by
extraneous variables
Psychological Measurement is Less Direct
– Psychological Tests are designed to draw
inferences about underlying attributes or
characteristics
– Psychological Tests are designed to measure constructs
* Hypothetical dimensions or characteristics
* Operational Definitions
Problems
- Misunderstanding about or misuse of
psychological tests
– People regard test scores as precise - Imprecise measures = ineffective?
- Tests are biased against women and minority groups, dehumanizing, and invasion of personal privacy
China – 2200 BC
- Selection of who would obtain government jobs
- Content changed over time: cultural
expectations, values of the ruling dynasty\ - Proficiency in endeavors such as music, archery, horsemanship, writing, and arithmetic
- Agriculture, geography,revenue, civil law, and military strategy
- Knowledge and skill with respect to the rites and ceremonies of public and social life
Passing the Exams Meant:
– Garb
– Exemption from taxes
– Exemption from torture
during interrogation
Greco-Roman Writings
– Categorizing people with
personality types
Categorizations
typically included reference to an
overabundance or deficiency in
some bodily fluid (such as blood
or phlegm) as a factor believed to
influence personality
Middle Ages:
Who is in league with the
devil?
Renaissance Period –
Christian von Wolff (18th C.)
psychology as a science and
psychological measurement as
a specialty within that science
1859
On the Origin of Species by
Means of Natural Selection
(Charles Darwin)
* Scientific interest on individual
differences
Francis Galton
- Research on heredity
- Classify people accdg. to natural
gifts - Ascertain the derivation from an
average
Galton – London, 1884: Anthropometric Laboratory
- Measurement of people accd to height (standing and sitting), arm span, weight, breathing capacity, strength of pull, strength of squeeze, swiftness of blow, keenness of sight, memory of form, discrimination of color, steadiness of hands
- Urged schools to do anthropometric records on the students
Wilhelm Max Wundt (19th Century)
– Experimental psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany
– Human abilities: reaction time, perception,
attention
– How were people similar
– Standardization: control of extraneous variables
Cattell
– 1890: “mental test”
– Founding of the Psychological Corporation in 1921
Students of Wundt
- Charles Spearman
- Victor Henri
- Emil Kraeplin
- E.B. Titchner
- G. Stanley Hall
- Lightner Witmer
Charles Spearman
test reliability, factor analysis
Victor Henri
worked with Alfred Binet on papers suggesting how mental tests could be used to measure higher mental processes
Emil Kraeplin
association technique as formal test
Lightner Witmer
little-known founder of clinical psychology, successor of Cattell
1895: Binet and Henri
published several articles in which they argued for the measurement of abilities such as memory and social comprehension
1905: Binet and Theodore Simon
published a 30-item “measuring scale of
intelligence” designed to help identify mentally
retarded Paris schoolchildren
1939: David Wechsler
– Test designed to measure adult intelligence
– Intelligence was “the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment”
– Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale -Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
BinetBinet
– Group intelligence testing
* US: Military’s need to conduct an efficient way of screening World War I recruits
– Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test
Late 1930’s:
4000 psychological tests in print
Clinical psychology
mental testing
World War I:
intelligence testing and testing on adjustment
Committee on Emotional Fitness
– Robert S. Woodworth
– Paper-and-pencil psychiatric interviews
– “Personal Data Sheet’
Robert Woodworth
Civilian personality test: Woodworth Psychoneurotic Inventory
Civilian personality test: Woodworth Psychoneurotic Inventory
Self-Report test of personality
Self-Report tests: prone to manipulation
– Development of projective tests
* Ex. Rorschach Inkblot Test by Hermann
Rorschach
Late 1930s
– Henry A. Murray, Christiana D. Morgan et al (Harvard Psychological Clinic)
* Pictures/photos as projective
stimuli
* Story
* Analyzing the needs and
motivations
