Introduction Flashcards
What is anatomy?
process of cutting
What is physiology?
the study of nature
- science of how the body functions
What are the 6 levels of structural organization within the body?
- chemical
- cellular
- tissue
- organ
- system
- organismal
chemical level
Atoms and molecules
cellular level
molecules combine
basic structural and functional units of an organism
tissue level
groups of cells and surrounding material that work together to preform a function
- epithelial: covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs and cavities
- connective: connects, supports, and protects organs
- muscular
-nervous
organ level
brain, stomach, heart
system level
multiple organs that have a common function, 11 total in the body
organism level
living person
What are the basic life processes?
metabolism, responsiveness, movement, growth, differentiation and reproduction
What is metabolism?
- sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body
catabolism (c=cutting down) and anabolism (a=adding up)
What is responsiveness?
detect and respond to changes, nervous and muscular play a large role
What is growth?
hypertrophy and hyperplasia
What is hypertrophy?
increase in size of cells i.e. muscle growth - good thing
What is hyperplasia?
increase in number of cells i.e. cancer - usually not a good thing
What is homeostasis?
Equilibrium of the body’s internal environment despite external factors that may disrupt it
What systems regulate to restore homeostasis?
nervous and endocrine
feedback system components
receptor, control centre and effector
can be positive or negative feedback
What factors affect homeostasis?
environment, genetic makeup, diet, exercise, amount of sleep and smoking
What are the body positions?
Anatomical, supine, prone and erect/recumbent
What are the regions of the human body?
head (cephalic)
Neck (cervical (CerVIKEal)
Trunk
- chest
- abdomen
- pelvis
Upper extremity
Lower extremity
Cephalic
Head
Cranial
Skull
Frontal
Forehead
Otic
Ear
Buccal
Cheek
Mental
Chin
Cervical
Neck (cerVIKEal)
Femoral
Thigh
Axillary
Armpit
Brachial
Arm
Antecubital
Anterior elbow
Antebrachial
Forearm
Palmer or Volar
Palm
Pollex
Thumb
Coxal
Hip
Manual
Hand
Digital or Phalangeal
Fingers and Toes
Pedal
Foot
Dorsum
Top of foot and back of hand
Hallux
Great Toe/ Big Toe
Occipital
Base of Skull
Orbital or Ocular
Eye
Olecranal or Cubital
Posterior elbow
Sacral
Between Hips
Lumbar
Loin
Perineal
Anus and external genitals
Popliteal
Hollow of posterior knee
Sural
Calf
Plantar
Sole of Foot
Calcaneal
Heel
What is superior?
(cephalic or cranial or cephalad) toward the head, or the upper part of the structure
What is inferior?
(caudal or caudad) away from the head, or the lower part of the structure
What is anterior?
(Ventral) near to or at the front of the body
What is posterior?
nearer to or at the back of the body
What is medial?
nearer to the midline
What is lateral?
further from the midline
What is intermediate?
between 2 structures
What is ipsilateral?
on the same side of the body as another structure
What is contralateral?
on the opposite side of the body from another structure
What is proximal?
nearer to the attachment of a limb to the trunk
What is distal?
farther from the attachment point of a limb to the trunk
What is superficial?
toward or on the surface of the body
What is deep?
Away from the surface of the body
What is a decubitus position?
where the X-ray beam is horizontal to the ground, named after whatever is touching the table
What are the body planes?
Sagittal, coronal, axial and oblique
What is the cranial cavity?
formed by cranial bones and contains the brain
What is the vertebral canal?
Ford by the vertebral column and contains spinal cord and the beginnings of spinal nerves
What is the thoracic cavity?
Chest cavity; contains pleural and pericardial cavities and the mediastinum
What is the pleural cavity?
a potential space between the layers of the pleura that surrounds a lung
What is the pericardial cavity?
a potential space between the layers of the pericardium that surrounds the heart
What is mediastinum?
Central portion of thoracic cavity between the lungs, from sternum to vertebral column, from first rib to diaphragm, contains the heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, and several large blood vessels
What is the abdominal cavity?
Contains stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of large intestine
What is the abdominopelvic cavity?
Subdivided into abdominal and pelvic cavities
What is the pelvic cavity?
contains urinary bladder, portions of large intestine and internal reproductive organs
how are the 4 quadrants of the abdominopelvic cavity separated?
by the midline or midsagittal line and the transumbilical line that runs through the belly button
How is the abdominopelvic cavity divided into 9 sections?
By left and right midclavicular lines and horizontally by the subcostal line (under the ribs) and the transtubercular line (through the pelvis as hips)
What are the 9 sections of the abdominopelvic cavity right to left top to bottom?
Right hypochondriac region
Epigastric region
Left hypochondriac region
Right lumbar region
Umbilical region
Left lumbar region
Right inguinal region
Hypo-gastric region
Left inguinal region
TEA
top of ear attachment
Mastoid tip
bump right behind ear
Gonion
corner of jaw
Hyoid bone
right under gonion in neck
Thyroid cartilage
C5 marker - right beneath the hyoid bone
Jugular notch
T2, T3 - (t and D interchangeable) indent at bottom middle on neck
Vertebra prominens
C7 marker - big bump base of neck
Inferior angle of Scapula
T7 - bottom tip of shoulder blade
Sternal angle
T4, T5 - angulature of sternum
Xiphoid process
T10 (Xiphy) - base of sternum
Inferior Costal Margin
L3 - bottom of ribs
Iliac crest
L4 - top of hip bones
Greater Trochanters
Coccyx and pubic symphysis - bump of hip when you twist foot
The thumb is on the ___________ aspect of the hand
lateral
The “index” (2nd) finger is __________ to the thumb and __________ to the middle finger
medial
lateral
Where is the dorsal of the hand?
the back
What vertebral level is equivalent to the iliac crest?
L4
The forearm is __________ to the wrist
proximal
The thoracic cavity is _________ to the abdominopelvic cavity
superior
True or False? The right forearm is ipsilateral to the right humerus?
True
True or false? A sagittal plane always passes through the vertebral column
False
The nose is ________ and _________ to the left eye
medial
inferior
What are cells?
- the basic structural units of all plants and animals
- smallest functioning units of life
- produced only by the division of preexisting cells
- each cell maintains homeostasis
What are the cells functions?
- covering, lining, storage, movement, connection, defence, communication and reproduction
What are the 3 parts of the cell?
plasma (cell) membrane
Cytoplasm - cytosol and organelles
Nucleus - chromosomes - genes
What are the functions of the cell membrane?
- Barrier
- Gate keepers: ion channels (NA/K pump bring back after leakage) and Carriers (protein carriers bring stuff across the membrane)
- communication - immune system
Where are Na and K found?
Na is found extracellularly
K is found intracellularly
What is the plasma membrane?
flexible yet sturdy barrier that surrounds and contains the cytoplasm of the cell
What is the membrane permeability?
selective permeability - lipid bilayer
- highly permeable to oxygen, carbon dioxide and steroids
- moderately permeable to water and urea
- impermeable to glucose
- transmembrane proteins that act as channels or transporters increase the permeability of the membrane (very specific)
- macromolecules are only able to pass through the plasma membrane by vesicular transport (endocytosis, exocytosis)
What is the concentration gradient?
the difference in the concentration of a chemical between one side of the plasma membrane and the other
- Oxygen and Na+ in the extracellular fluid
- CO2 and K+ in the cytosol
What is an electrical gradient?
the difference in concentration of ions between one side of the plasma membrane and the other
- resting membrane potential is -70mV
What is the electrochemical gradient?
both the concentration and electrical gradients
What are passive processes?
Substance moves down its concentration gradient from high to low
Requires no input of energy from the cell
- simple diffusion - Oxygen, carbon dioxide, steroids and vitamins
- facilitated diffusion - Ion channels (K+, Cl-, Na+, Ca2+)
- osmosis - same process as simple diffusion just water
What are active processes?
requires cellular energy. to move a substance against a gradient
Na+, K+, H+
- Sodium potassium pump: 3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in, pumps from low concentration to high concentration
- vesicular (spherical sac) transport - endocytosis or exocytosis
What are the 4 types of tissue?
epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous
What is epithelial tissue?
covers body surfaces, organs, ducts
forms glands
avascular
What is connective tissue?
protects and supports the body
immediately adjacent to epithelial tissue
has a blood supply that diffuses to epithelial tissue
What is muscular tissue?
cells specialized for contractions (movement)
generates heat
What is nervous tissue?
detects a stimulus and then sends signal for movement
What are the functions of connective tissue?
- binds together, supports and strengthens other tissues
- protects and insulates internal organs
- stores fat (energy)
- main source of immune responses
- serves as the main transport system within the body
What are the classifications of connective tissue?
embryonic - developing
Mature
- loose connective tissue
- dense connective tissue
- cartilage
- bone tissue
- liquid connective tissue
What are examples of loos connective tissue?
adipose tissue
What are examples of deep connective tissue?
forms tendons, ligaments and aponeuroses
What are examples of cartilage?
hyaline, fibrocartilage and elastic
What are examples of bone tissue?
cortical and trabecular
What are examples of liquid connective tissue?
blood and lymph
What are tendons?
- fibers run parallel along the tendon
- joins muscle to bone
- achilles and quadriceps
- overstretch = strain
What are ligaments?
- fibers crisscross (resembles rope)
- connects bone to bone
- ACL - anterior cruciate ligament
- overstretch = sprain
What are aponeuroses?
- sheetlike tendon
- connects muscle to muscle OR muscle to bone
What is cartilage?
- can endure considerably more stress than loose or dense tissue
- no nerves or blood vessels
- heals poorly following injury
What is hyaline cartilage?
- most abundant in the body: Long bones, anterior ends of ribs, nose, trachea, fetal skeleton
- provides smooth surface at joints
- weakest type - can be fractured
What is fibrocartilage?
- strongest type: pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs, menisci, labrum
- this is the cartilage broken down with osteoarthritis
What is elastic cartilage?
epiglottis, ear and Eustachian tube
What are the functions of the skeletal system?
- support
- protection
- assistance in movement
- mineral homeostasis (stores phosphorus and 99% of the body’s calcium)
- blood cell production (hemopoiesis and red bone marrow)
- triglyceride storage (yellow bone marrow)
What is hemopoiesis?
majority of the blood cells are formed from the bone marrow
- Thymus, spleen and liver can also produce blood cells
What are the two types of bone marrow?
red bone marrow
yellow bone marrow
What is red bone marrow?
- produces red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets
- flat bones (ilia of pelvis, skull, sternum, scapula, ribs) vertebrae (irregular) and trabecular bone of proximal femur and proximal humerus
What is yellow bone marrow?
- stores fat
- in spaces of trabecular bone (other than proximal femur and proximal humerus)
- in medullary cavity of long bones
What are the 4 types of bone cells?
- osteoprogenitor cells
- osteoblasts
- osteocytes
- osteoclasts
What are osteoprogenitor cells?
stem cells that produce osteoblasts
What are osteoblasts?
build up bone
What are osteocytes?
mature bone cells
What are osteoclasts?
break down bone (resorption)
What are the two types of bone tissue?
cortical (compact) bone and trabecular (spongy) bone
What is cortical bone?
Few spaces - stronger bone tissue
- always surrounds the trabecular bone
- provides protection and support
- resists stress of weight and movement
- forms the bulk of the diaphysis of long bones
- beneath the periosteum of all bones
- composed of repeating structural units called osteons
What is an osteon?
- tube like structures run parallel to the long axis
- weight training, fractures change the organization of osteons
What is trabecular bone?
- located interiorly, protected by compact bone
- made up of trabecular (small struts or rods)
- trabecular are precisely aligned with lines of stress
- within the spaces are the red and yellow bone marrow
- lighter compared to compact bone to allow easier movement
When looking for levels of fluid in the knee what position must the patient be in?
Dorsal decubitus position
What would cause the patella sitting up off the knee?
effusion, caused by injury (swelling)
What is lipohemarthritis?
fat and blood in the joint, fat sits on top
- fat coming from yellow bone marrow
- know that there is a fracture somewhere in the knee
What are the 5 bone shapes?
- long bone
- short bone
- flat bone
- irregular bone
- sesamoid bone
What are long bones?
upper extremity - humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpals, phalanges
Lower extremity - femur, tibia, fibula, metatarsals, phalanges
- provide support, air as levers
- bone is longer than it is wide
What are the parts of the long bone?
- 1 diaphysis (shaft)
- 2 epiphyses (both ends of the bone at the joints
- 2 metaphases (region between diaphysis and epiphyses)
- articular cartilage (hyaline) cover both epiphyses
- periosteum (connective tissue surrounding the diaphysis)
- medullary cavity (hollow space within diaphysis)
- Endosteum (thin membrane lining the medullary cavity)
long bone components diagram
slide 113
What is an Ewing sarcoma?
damage to levels of the periosteum
- usually caused by bone cancer
- usually requires amputation
What is an osteosarcoma?
if there is only 1 level of damage to periosteum
bone infection is the only other cause other than cancer
What are short bones?
carpal bones of the wrist (8)
tarsal bones of the feet (7)
What are flat bones?
- skull cap (frontal, parietal, occipital bones), sternum, scapula, ribs, ilium
- typically thin bones (2 parallel plates of compact bone surrounding trabecular bone - red bone marrow)
- blood cell formation
- broad surfaces are good for muscle attachment or for protection
What is diploe?
the red bone marrow in the flat bones of the skull
What are irregular bones?
vertebrae, facial bones
- contain red bone marrow
What are sesamoid bones?
- small and oval
- develop inside or beside tendons
- patella, inferior great toe (hallux), thumb
What is ossification OR osteogenesis?
- initial formation of bones in fetus
- growth of bones during infancy and adolescence
- remodelling of old bone with new bone
- repair of fractures
What are the 2 methods of bone formation?
intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification
What is intramembranous ossification?
flat bones of skull and facial bones, medial ends of clavicles
What is endochorndral ossification?
- bone formation from cartilage
- most bones of the body are developed this way
- method by which bones increase in length
- method by which fractures are repaired
what are the 2 processes of bone growth in length?
- interstitial growth of cartilage on epiphyseal side of epiphyseal plate
- replacement of cartilage with bone on the diaphysral side of the epiphyseal plate
What is the epiphyseal plate’s role in bone growth?
- new chondrocytes replace older ones destroyed by calcification
- cartilage is replaced by bone on the diaphysral side
- thickness of epiphyseal plate remains constant, but diaphysral bone increases in length
- if epiphyseal plate is damaged, growth may be disturbed as cartilage may cease to divide
what is apophysis?
- normal outgrowth of a bone from a separate ossification center
- forms an important insertion point for ligaments or tendons
- may be mistaken for fractures
- tibial tubercle, greater & lesser trochanters, iliac crest and mass of the 5th MT
What is bone remodelling?
bone renews itself continually
- combination of bone resorption (osteoclasts) and bone deposition (osteoblasts)
What are the advantages of bone remodelling?
- new bone is more resistant to fracture
- if new bone is subjected to increased stresses or work, it will grow thicker
- the shape of bone can be altered for proper support based on the stress patterns
What are the factors affecting bone remodelling?
- exercise
- minerals (calcium and phosphorus)
- vitamins (A - stimulates activity of osteoblasts, C - synthesis of collagen, D - increases absorption of calcium from food, K and B12 - synthesis of bone proteins)
- Hormones (thyroid, human growth hormone, testosterone and estrogen)
What are the rates of remodelling during different life stages?
Brith to adolescence - more bone is produced than lost during remodelling
Adulthood - bone is equally resorbed and deposited
Elderly - osteoporosis occurs when resorption is greater than deposition
What are the phases and steps in bone repair?
- reactive phase
2a. reparative phase: fibrocartilaginous callus formation
2b. reparative phase: bony callus formation - bone remodelling phase
What is the reactive phase?
an early inflammatory phase
- formation of fracture hematoma
What is the reparative phase?
includes formation of fibrocartiliginous callus first and a bony callus second
What is the bone remodelling phase?
the last step as the bony callus is remodled
What is the 1st radiographic sign that a fracture is beginning to repair?
bone resorption at the fracture site (can’t see the cartilage)
What is the bones role in calcium homeostasis?
- bones store 99% of the body’s calcium
- nerve and muscle cells, blood clotting, and enzyme reactions require stable levels of calcium ions in blood
- bone buffers the calcium ion concentration
How do bone buffers affect the calcium ion concentration?
Parathyroid gland secretes Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
- osteoclasts are stimulated to increase bone resorption and calcium is released into blood (increases blood calcium levels)
Calcitonin (produced by thyroid) causes Ca2+ to be deposited in bone (decreases blood calcium levels)
What are projections or outgrowths?
- allow formation of joints
- provide sites for tendons or ligaments to attach
What are depressions or openings?
- allow blood vessels, nerves, tendons, or ligaments to pass through
- allow formation of joints
What is process?
projection or bump (mastoid, spinous process)
What is ramus?
curved bone (superior pubic ramous, mandibular ramus)
What is trochanter?
large, rough projection; only in femur (greater or lesser)
What is tuberosity?
smaller (than trochanter), rough projection (greater tuberosity in shoulder)
What is tubercle?
small, rounded projection (may be used interchangeably with tuberosity)
What is a crest?
prominent ridge of bone for muscle attachment (iliac crest)
What is line?
low ridge of bone, smaller than a crest (lines aspera)
What is spine?
sharp, slender, pointed process (ASIS)
What is head?
rounded articular end of an epiphyses, separated from the shaft by the neck (radial or humeral)
What is neck?
connection between the head and diaphysis (femoral, humeral)
What is condyle?
smooth, large-rounded articular process that forms joints (medial femoral)
What is facet?
smooth, flat articular surface (superior articular facet in spine)
What is epicondyle?
roughened projection above condyle for tendon or ligament attachment (medial and lateral elbow)
What is protuberance?
projecting part or prominence (external occipital protuberance)
What is caracoid or coranoid?
beak-like process (ulna and scapula)
What is fissure?
narrow slit between adjacent parts of bone through which blood vessels or nerves pass (superior orbital fissure) deeper than sulcus
What is sulcus?
Furrowing along bone surface that accommodates blood vessels, nerve or tendon (calcanea sulcus)
What is fossa?
shallow depression in or on a bone (glenoid fossa)
What is foramen?
rounded passageway for blood vessels and/or nerves (optic)
What is canal?
rounded passageway through bone (internal auditory canal)
What is sinus?
cavity within a bone (maxillary sinus)
What is meatus?
tube-like opening (EAM)
