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Anatomy and Physiology 1 > Introduction > Flashcards

Introduction Flashcards

1
Q

What is anatomy?

A

process of cutting

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2
Q

What is physiology?

A

the study of nature
- science of how the body functions

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3
Q

What are the 6 levels of structural organization within the body?

A
  1. chemical
  2. cellular
  3. tissue
  4. organ
  5. system
  6. organismal
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4
Q

chemical level

A

Atoms and molecules

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5
Q

cellular level

A

molecules combine
basic structural and functional units of an organism

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6
Q

tissue level

A

groups of cells and surrounding material that work together to preform a function
- epithelial: covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs and cavities
- connective: connects, supports, and protects organs
- muscular
-nervous

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7
Q

organ level

A

brain, stomach, heart

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8
Q

system level

A

multiple organs that have a common function, 11 total in the body

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9
Q

organism level

A

living person

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10
Q

What are the basic life processes?

A

metabolism, responsiveness, movement, growth, differentiation and reproduction

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11
Q

What is metabolism?

A
  • sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body
    catabolism (c=cutting down) and anabolism (a=adding up)
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12
Q

What is responsiveness?

A

detect and respond to changes, nervous and muscular play a large role

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13
Q

What is growth?

A

hypertrophy and hyperplasia

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14
Q

What is hypertrophy?

A

increase in size of cells i.e. muscle growth - good thing

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15
Q

What is hyperplasia?

A

increase in number of cells i.e. cancer - usually not a good thing

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16
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

Equilibrium of the body’s internal environment despite external factors that may disrupt it

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17
Q

What systems regulate to restore homeostasis?

A

nervous and endocrine

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18
Q

feedback system components

A

receptor, control centre and effector
can be positive or negative feedback

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19
Q

What factors affect homeostasis?

A

environment, genetic makeup, diet, exercise, amount of sleep and smoking

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20
Q

What are the body positions?

A

Anatomical, supine, prone and erect/recumbent

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21
Q

What are the regions of the human body?

A

head (cephalic)
Neck (cervical (CerVIKEal)
Trunk
- chest
- abdomen
- pelvis
Upper extremity
Lower extremity

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22
Q

Cephalic

A

Head

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23
Q

Cranial

A

Skull

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24
Q

Frontal

A

Forehead

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25
Q

Otic

A

Ear

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26
Q

Buccal

A

Cheek

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27
Q

Mental

A

Chin

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28
Q

Cervical

A

Neck (cerVIKEal)

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29
Q

Femoral

A

Thigh

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30
Q

Axillary

A

Armpit

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31
Q

Brachial

A

Arm

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32
Q

Antecubital

A

Anterior elbow

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33
Q

Antebrachial

A

Forearm

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34
Q

Palmer or Volar

A

Palm

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35
Q

Pollex

A

Thumb

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36
Q

Coxal

A

Hip

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37
Q

Manual

A

Hand

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38
Q

Digital or Phalangeal

A

Fingers and Toes

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39
Q

Pedal

A

Foot

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40
Q

Dorsum

A

Top of foot and back of hand

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41
Q

Hallux

A

Great Toe/ Big Toe

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42
Q

Occipital

A

Base of Skull

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43
Q

Orbital or Ocular

A

Eye

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44
Q

Olecranal or Cubital

A

Posterior elbow

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45
Q

Sacral

A

Between Hips

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46
Q

Lumbar

A

Loin

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47
Q

Perineal

A

Anus and external genitals

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48
Q

Popliteal

A

Hollow of posterior knee

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49
Q

Sural

A

Calf

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50
Q

Plantar

A

Sole of Foot

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51
Q

Calcaneal

A

Heel

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52
Q

What is superior?

A

(cephalic or cranial or cephalad) toward the head, or the upper part of the structure

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53
Q

What is inferior?

A

(caudal or caudad) away from the head, or the lower part of the structure

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54
Q

What is anterior?

A

(Ventral) near to or at the front of the body

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55
Q

What is posterior?

A

nearer to or at the back of the body

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56
Q

What is medial?

A

nearer to the midline

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57
Q

What is lateral?

A

further from the midline

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58
Q

What is intermediate?

A

between 2 structures

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59
Q

What is ipsilateral?

A

on the same side of the body as another structure

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60
Q

What is contralateral?

A

on the opposite side of the body from another structure

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61
Q

What is proximal?

A

nearer to the attachment of a limb to the trunk

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62
Q

What is distal?

A

farther from the attachment point of a limb to the trunk

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63
Q

What is superficial?

A

toward or on the surface of the body

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64
Q

What is deep?

A

Away from the surface of the body

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65
Q

What is a decubitus position?

A

where the X-ray beam is horizontal to the ground, named after whatever is touching the table

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66
Q

What are the body planes?

A

Sagittal, coronal, axial and oblique

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67
Q

What is the cranial cavity?

A

formed by cranial bones and contains the brain

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68
Q

What is the vertebral canal?

A

Ford by the vertebral column and contains spinal cord and the beginnings of spinal nerves

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69
Q

What is the thoracic cavity?

A

Chest cavity; contains pleural and pericardial cavities and the mediastinum

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70
Q

What is the pleural cavity?

A

a potential space between the layers of the pleura that surrounds a lung

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71
Q

What is the pericardial cavity?

A

a potential space between the layers of the pericardium that surrounds the heart

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72
Q

What is mediastinum?

A

Central portion of thoracic cavity between the lungs, from sternum to vertebral column, from first rib to diaphragm, contains the heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, and several large blood vessels

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73
Q

What is the abdominal cavity?

A

Contains stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of large intestine

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74
Q

What is the abdominopelvic cavity?

A

Subdivided into abdominal and pelvic cavities

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75
Q

What is the pelvic cavity?

A

contains urinary bladder, portions of large intestine and internal reproductive organs

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76
Q

how are the 4 quadrants of the abdominopelvic cavity separated?

A

by the midline or midsagittal line and the transumbilical line that runs through the belly button

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77
Q

How is the abdominopelvic cavity divided into 9 sections?

A

By left and right midclavicular lines and horizontally by the subcostal line (under the ribs) and the transtubercular line (through the pelvis as hips)

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78
Q

What are the 9 sections of the abdominopelvic cavity right to left top to bottom?

A

Right hypochondriac region
Epigastric region
Left hypochondriac region
Right lumbar region
Umbilical region
Left lumbar region
Right inguinal region
Hypo-gastric region
Left inguinal region

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79
Q

TEA

A

top of ear attachment

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80
Q

Mastoid tip

A

bump right behind ear

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81
Q

Gonion

A

corner of jaw

82
Q

Hyoid bone

A

right under gonion in neck

83
Q

Thyroid cartilage

A

C5 marker - right beneath the hyoid bone

84
Q

Jugular notch

A

T2, T3 - (t and D interchangeable) indent at bottom middle on neck

85
Q

Vertebra prominens

A

C7 marker - big bump base of neck

86
Q

Inferior angle of Scapula

A

T7 - bottom tip of shoulder blade

87
Q

Sternal angle

A

T4, T5 - angulature of sternum

88
Q

Xiphoid process

A

T10 (Xiphy) - base of sternum

89
Q

Inferior Costal Margin

A

L3 - bottom of ribs

90
Q

Iliac crest

A

L4 - top of hip bones

91
Q

Greater Trochanters

A

Coccyx and pubic symphysis - bump of hip when you twist foot

92
Q

The thumb is on the ___________ aspect of the hand

A

lateral

93
Q

The “index” (2nd) finger is __________ to the thumb and __________ to the middle finger

A

medial
lateral

94
Q

Where is the dorsal of the hand?

A

the back

95
Q

What vertebral level is equivalent to the iliac crest?

A

L4

96
Q

The forearm is __________ to the wrist

A

proximal

97
Q

The thoracic cavity is _________ to the abdominopelvic cavity

A

superior

98
Q

True or False? The right forearm is ipsilateral to the right humerus?

A

True

99
Q

True or false? A sagittal plane always passes through the vertebral column

A

False

100
Q

The nose is ________ and _________ to the left eye

A

medial
inferior

101
Q

What are cells?

A
  • the basic structural units of all plants and animals
  • smallest functioning units of life
  • produced only by the division of preexisting cells
  • each cell maintains homeostasis
102
Q

What are the cells functions?

A
  • covering, lining, storage, movement, connection, defence, communication and reproduction
103
Q

What are the 3 parts of the cell?

A

plasma (cell) membrane
Cytoplasm - cytosol and organelles
Nucleus - chromosomes - genes

104
Q

What are the functions of the cell membrane?

A
  • Barrier
  • Gate keepers: ion channels (NA/K pump bring back after leakage) and Carriers (protein carriers bring stuff across the membrane)
  • communication - immune system
105
Q

Where are Na and K found?

A

Na is found extracellularly
K is found intracellularly

106
Q

What is the plasma membrane?

A

flexible yet sturdy barrier that surrounds and contains the cytoplasm of the cell

107
Q

What is the membrane permeability?

A

selective permeability - lipid bilayer
- highly permeable to oxygen, carbon dioxide and steroids
- moderately permeable to water and urea
- impermeable to glucose
- transmembrane proteins that act as channels or transporters increase the permeability of the membrane (very specific)
- macromolecules are only able to pass through the plasma membrane by vesicular transport (endocytosis, exocytosis)

108
Q

What is the concentration gradient?

A

the difference in the concentration of a chemical between one side of the plasma membrane and the other
- Oxygen and Na+ in the extracellular fluid
- CO2 and K+ in the cytosol

109
Q

What is an electrical gradient?

A

the difference in concentration of ions between one side of the plasma membrane and the other
- resting membrane potential is -70mV

110
Q

What is the electrochemical gradient?

A

both the concentration and electrical gradients

111
Q

What are passive processes?

A

Substance moves down its concentration gradient from high to low
Requires no input of energy from the cell
- simple diffusion - Oxygen, carbon dioxide, steroids and vitamins
- facilitated diffusion - Ion channels (K+, Cl-, Na+, Ca2+)
- osmosis - same process as simple diffusion just water

112
Q

What are active processes?

A

requires cellular energy. to move a substance against a gradient
Na+, K+, H+
- Sodium potassium pump: 3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in, pumps from low concentration to high concentration
- vesicular (spherical sac) transport - endocytosis or exocytosis

113
Q

What are the 4 types of tissue?

A

epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous

114
Q

What is epithelial tissue?

A

covers body surfaces, organs, ducts
forms glands
avascular

115
Q

What is connective tissue?

A

protects and supports the body
immediately adjacent to epithelial tissue
has a blood supply that diffuses to epithelial tissue

116
Q

What is muscular tissue?

A

cells specialized for contractions (movement)
generates heat

117
Q

What is nervous tissue?

A

detects a stimulus and then sends signal for movement

118
Q

What are the functions of connective tissue?

A
  1. binds together, supports and strengthens other tissues
  2. protects and insulates internal organs
  3. stores fat (energy)
  4. main source of immune responses
  5. serves as the main transport system within the body
119
Q

What are the classifications of connective tissue?

A

embryonic - developing
Mature
- loose connective tissue
- dense connective tissue
- cartilage
- bone tissue
- liquid connective tissue

120
Q

What are examples of loos connective tissue?

A

adipose tissue

121
Q

What are examples of deep connective tissue?

A

forms tendons, ligaments and aponeuroses

122
Q

What are examples of cartilage?

A

hyaline, fibrocartilage and elastic

123
Q

What are examples of bone tissue?

A

cortical and trabecular

124
Q

What are examples of liquid connective tissue?

A

blood and lymph

125
Q

What are tendons?

A
  • fibers run parallel along the tendon
  • joins muscle to bone
  • achilles and quadriceps
  • overstretch = strain
126
Q

What are ligaments?

A
  • fibers crisscross (resembles rope)
  • connects bone to bone
  • ACL - anterior cruciate ligament
  • overstretch = sprain
127
Q

What are aponeuroses?

A
  • sheetlike tendon
  • connects muscle to muscle OR muscle to bone
128
Q

What is cartilage?

A
  • can endure considerably more stress than loose or dense tissue
  • no nerves or blood vessels
  • heals poorly following injury
129
Q

What is hyaline cartilage?

A
  • most abundant in the body: Long bones, anterior ends of ribs, nose, trachea, fetal skeleton
  • provides smooth surface at joints
  • weakest type - can be fractured
130
Q

What is fibrocartilage?

A
  • strongest type: pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs, menisci, labrum
  • this is the cartilage broken down with osteoarthritis
131
Q

What is elastic cartilage?

A

epiglottis, ear and Eustachian tube

132
Q

What are the functions of the skeletal system?

A
  1. support
  2. protection
  3. assistance in movement
  4. mineral homeostasis (stores phosphorus and 99% of the body’s calcium)
  5. blood cell production (hemopoiesis and red bone marrow)
  6. triglyceride storage (yellow bone marrow)
133
Q

What is hemopoiesis?

A

majority of the blood cells are formed from the bone marrow
- Thymus, spleen and liver can also produce blood cells

134
Q

What are the two types of bone marrow?

A

red bone marrow
yellow bone marrow

135
Q

What is red bone marrow?

A
  • produces red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets
  • flat bones (ilia of pelvis, skull, sternum, scapula, ribs) vertebrae (irregular) and trabecular bone of proximal femur and proximal humerus
136
Q

What is yellow bone marrow?

A
  • stores fat
  • in spaces of trabecular bone (other than proximal femur and proximal humerus)
  • in medullary cavity of long bones
137
Q

What are the 4 types of bone cells?

A
  1. osteoprogenitor cells
  2. osteoblasts
  3. osteocytes
  4. osteoclasts
138
Q

What are osteoprogenitor cells?

A

stem cells that produce osteoblasts

139
Q

What are osteoblasts?

A

build up bone

140
Q

What are osteocytes?

A

mature bone cells

141
Q

What are osteoclasts?

A

break down bone (resorption)

142
Q

What are the two types of bone tissue?

A

cortical (compact) bone and trabecular (spongy) bone

143
Q

What is cortical bone?

A

Few spaces - stronger bone tissue
- always surrounds the trabecular bone
- provides protection and support
- resists stress of weight and movement
- forms the bulk of the diaphysis of long bones
- beneath the periosteum of all bones
- composed of repeating structural units called osteons

144
Q

What is an osteon?

A
  • tube like structures run parallel to the long axis
  • weight training, fractures change the organization of osteons
145
Q

What is trabecular bone?

A
  • located interiorly, protected by compact bone
  • made up of trabecular (small struts or rods)
  • trabecular are precisely aligned with lines of stress
  • within the spaces are the red and yellow bone marrow
  • lighter compared to compact bone to allow easier movement
146
Q

When looking for levels of fluid in the knee what position must the patient be in?

A

Dorsal decubitus position

147
Q

What would cause the patella sitting up off the knee?

A

effusion, caused by injury (swelling)

148
Q

What is lipohemarthritis?

A

fat and blood in the joint, fat sits on top
- fat coming from yellow bone marrow
- know that there is a fracture somewhere in the knee

149
Q

What are the 5 bone shapes?

A
  1. long bone
  2. short bone
  3. flat bone
  4. irregular bone
  5. sesamoid bone
150
Q

What are long bones?

A

upper extremity - humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpals, phalanges
Lower extremity - femur, tibia, fibula, metatarsals, phalanges
- provide support, air as levers
- bone is longer than it is wide

151
Q

What are the parts of the long bone?

A
  • 1 diaphysis (shaft)
  • 2 epiphyses (both ends of the bone at the joints
  • 2 metaphases (region between diaphysis and epiphyses)
  • articular cartilage (hyaline) cover both epiphyses
  • periosteum (connective tissue surrounding the diaphysis)
  • medullary cavity (hollow space within diaphysis)
  • Endosteum (thin membrane lining the medullary cavity)
152
Q

long bone components diagram

A

slide 113

153
Q

What is an Ewing sarcoma?

A

damage to levels of the periosteum
- usually caused by bone cancer
- usually requires amputation

154
Q

What is an osteosarcoma?

A

if there is only 1 level of damage to periosteum
bone infection is the only other cause other than cancer

155
Q

What are short bones?

A

carpal bones of the wrist (8)
tarsal bones of the feet (7)

156
Q

What are flat bones?

A
  • skull cap (frontal, parietal, occipital bones), sternum, scapula, ribs, ilium
  • typically thin bones (2 parallel plates of compact bone surrounding trabecular bone - red bone marrow)
  • blood cell formation
  • broad surfaces are good for muscle attachment or for protection
157
Q

What is diploe?

A

the red bone marrow in the flat bones of the skull

158
Q

What are irregular bones?

A

vertebrae, facial bones
- contain red bone marrow

159
Q

What are sesamoid bones?

A
  • small and oval
  • develop inside or beside tendons
  • patella, inferior great toe (hallux), thumb
160
Q

What is ossification OR osteogenesis?

A
  1. initial formation of bones in fetus
  2. growth of bones during infancy and adolescence
  3. remodelling of old bone with new bone
  4. repair of fractures
161
Q

What are the 2 methods of bone formation?

A

intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification

162
Q

What is intramembranous ossification?

A

flat bones of skull and facial bones, medial ends of clavicles

163
Q

What is endochorndral ossification?

A
  • bone formation from cartilage
  • most bones of the body are developed this way
  • method by which bones increase in length
  • method by which fractures are repaired
164
Q

what are the 2 processes of bone growth in length?

A
  1. interstitial growth of cartilage on epiphyseal side of epiphyseal plate
  2. replacement of cartilage with bone on the diaphysral side of the epiphyseal plate
165
Q

What is the epiphyseal plate’s role in bone growth?

A
  • new chondrocytes replace older ones destroyed by calcification
  • cartilage is replaced by bone on the diaphysral side
  • thickness of epiphyseal plate remains constant, but diaphysral bone increases in length
  • if epiphyseal plate is damaged, growth may be disturbed as cartilage may cease to divide
166
Q

what is apophysis?

A
  • normal outgrowth of a bone from a separate ossification center
  • forms an important insertion point for ligaments or tendons
  • may be mistaken for fractures
  • tibial tubercle, greater & lesser trochanters, iliac crest and mass of the 5th MT
167
Q

What is bone remodelling?

A

bone renews itself continually
- combination of bone resorption (osteoclasts) and bone deposition (osteoblasts)

168
Q

What are the advantages of bone remodelling?

A
  • new bone is more resistant to fracture
  • if new bone is subjected to increased stresses or work, it will grow thicker
  • the shape of bone can be altered for proper support based on the stress patterns
169
Q

What are the factors affecting bone remodelling?

A
  • exercise
  • minerals (calcium and phosphorus)
  • vitamins (A - stimulates activity of osteoblasts, C - synthesis of collagen, D - increases absorption of calcium from food, K and B12 - synthesis of bone proteins)
  • Hormones (thyroid, human growth hormone, testosterone and estrogen)
170
Q

What are the rates of remodelling during different life stages?

A

Brith to adolescence - more bone is produced than lost during remodelling
Adulthood - bone is equally resorbed and deposited
Elderly - osteoporosis occurs when resorption is greater than deposition

171
Q

What are the phases and steps in bone repair?

A
  1. reactive phase
    2a. reparative phase: fibrocartilaginous callus formation
    2b. reparative phase: bony callus formation
  2. bone remodelling phase
172
Q

What is the reactive phase?

A

an early inflammatory phase
- formation of fracture hematoma

173
Q

What is the reparative phase?

A

includes formation of fibrocartiliginous callus first and a bony callus second

174
Q

What is the bone remodelling phase?

A

the last step as the bony callus is remodled

175
Q

What is the 1st radiographic sign that a fracture is beginning to repair?

A

bone resorption at the fracture site (can’t see the cartilage)

176
Q

What is the bones role in calcium homeostasis?

A
  • bones store 99% of the body’s calcium
  • nerve and muscle cells, blood clotting, and enzyme reactions require stable levels of calcium ions in blood
  • bone buffers the calcium ion concentration
177
Q

How do bone buffers affect the calcium ion concentration?

A

Parathyroid gland secretes Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
- osteoclasts are stimulated to increase bone resorption and calcium is released into blood (increases blood calcium levels)
Calcitonin (produced by thyroid) causes Ca2+ to be deposited in bone (decreases blood calcium levels)

178
Q

What are projections or outgrowths?

A
  1. allow formation of joints
  2. provide sites for tendons or ligaments to attach
179
Q

What are depressions or openings?

A
  1. allow blood vessels, nerves, tendons, or ligaments to pass through
  2. allow formation of joints
180
Q

What is process?

A

projection or bump (mastoid, spinous process)

181
Q

What is ramus?

A

curved bone (superior pubic ramous, mandibular ramus)

182
Q

What is trochanter?

A

large, rough projection; only in femur (greater or lesser)

183
Q

What is tuberosity?

A

smaller (than trochanter), rough projection (greater tuberosity in shoulder)

184
Q

What is tubercle?

A

small, rounded projection (may be used interchangeably with tuberosity)

185
Q

What is a crest?

A

prominent ridge of bone for muscle attachment (iliac crest)

186
Q

What is line?

A

low ridge of bone, smaller than a crest (lines aspera)

187
Q

What is spine?

A

sharp, slender, pointed process (ASIS)

188
Q

What is head?

A

rounded articular end of an epiphyses, separated from the shaft by the neck (radial or humeral)

189
Q

What is neck?

A

connection between the head and diaphysis (femoral, humeral)

190
Q

What is condyle?

A

smooth, large-rounded articular process that forms joints (medial femoral)

191
Q

What is facet?

A

smooth, flat articular surface (superior articular facet in spine)

192
Q

What is epicondyle?

A

roughened projection above condyle for tendon or ligament attachment (medial and lateral elbow)

193
Q

What is protuberance?

A

projecting part or prominence (external occipital protuberance)

194
Q

What is caracoid or coranoid?

A

beak-like process (ulna and scapula)

195
Q

What is fissure?

A

narrow slit between adjacent parts of bone through which blood vessels or nerves pass (superior orbital fissure) deeper than sulcus

196
Q

What is sulcus?

A

Furrowing along bone surface that accommodates blood vessels, nerve or tendon (calcanea sulcus)

197
Q

What is fossa?

A

shallow depression in or on a bone (glenoid fossa)

198
Q

What is foramen?

A

rounded passageway for blood vessels and/or nerves (optic)

199
Q

What is canal?

A

rounded passageway through bone (internal auditory canal)

200
Q

What is sinus?

A

cavity within a bone (maxillary sinus)

201
Q

What is meatus?

A

tube-like opening (EAM)

Anatomy and Physiology 1 (5 decks)

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