Introduction 1.1 Constitutional Systems and the rulers Flashcards
Introduction to Block 1
George F. Kennan in 1979 “famously called the First World War ‘the seminal catastrophe of the Twentieth Century”
“Since the 1960s, historians have increasingly approached history more from the bottom up, focusing on the experiences of ‘ordinary people’.”
“smells’ of war, as in Roger Chickering’s micro-study of Freiburg, a small German town:- “Soap responded like milk, fertilizer or kerosene to the war’s economies. … Starved of its main ingredients, soap grew scarce” - people became smelly as the war dragged on - despondency
“As you will also see, it remains a contested question among historians whether the war accelerated social change, hindered it or even made it possible in the first place.”
“War, peace and modernity” - War
To learn why the first World began and look at its historiographical data and debates that surround it
Was war good for medicine?
Most important consequence - revolution in Russia and possibly the seeds of the Cold War and Europe’s division?
The German-dominated Mitteleuropa (Central Europe) dream destroyed with Germany’s WWI defeat
“War, peace and modernity” - Peace
League of Nations view of collective rights - a result of the WW1 peace settlement (did this sow seeds for war?), the League as the precursor of the UN which wanted to avoid the League’s mistakes?
Pre 1914, there were many voices that longed for war to bring an end to the ‘dreary peace’
Post 1919 was not a ‘period of peace’ it was the ‘interwar years’, Europe’s political problems problems had not been solved
“War, peace and modernity” - Modernity
Mazower - ‘three ideologies that saw themselves charged with the remaking of society, the continent and the world in a New Order for mankind’.
A sense of process as well as an end state; a feeling that everything could be different from that which had gone before
Nazi Germany, ‘modernity’ was envisioned as a a non-agrarian society, created and sustained by highly technological armed forces.
Communist modernity elevated the needs of industrial production far above individual political and economic rights.
Urbanisation (pre and post war) - as a feature of ‘modernity’
W L Langer, diplomatic historian 1990 (quoted in Joll)
“the greatest mistake a historian could make (is)…to construct a neat, logical pattern when in actual fact everything was confusion and contradiction’
1.1 Constitutional systems an the rulers
The 19th C. has been considered the ‘bourgeois century’ by many historians of Europe
Men who built their positions by their talents rather than their birth - Each of Napoleon’s soldiers carried a marshal’s baton in his knapsack - French revolution’s abolition of feudalism
But, some historians say - steps towards its end and the ‘rise of the bourgeois’ were taken many years before the French Revolution
Others say - The ancient regime (save for a few bankers, merchants and shipowners) was very much alive and kicking in 1914 - e.g. US historian Areno J Mayer (written with a broad brush stroke) it was comprised of political society (agrarian landowning Lords and The Church)
1.1 Constitutional systems an the rulers - 2
Latifundia - Large landed estate worked by slaves or peasants. They ‘had no security of tenure’ - prevalent in Southern Europe and also Russia
Common factors of countries’ 1) An executive/Head of State, 2) ministers and confidants, 3) some form of elected chamber, but with varying degrees of power
Britain, France, Italy - Liberal (France had universal male suffrage and in Italy the Prime Minister was also the minister of the interior - election calling)
Austria - Hungary (autocratic two parts Cisleithania - The West, Transleithania - Hungary) , Germany - (autocratic - The Kaiser - considerable power but had to deal with the Reichstag, they (aristocracy) thought themselves better than GB. Russia - autocratic, Tsar believed sanctioned by GOD
1.1 Constitutional systems an the rulers - 3
Political Parties -
Class parties - Marxist e.g. SPD, Social Democratic Party, Germany. SFIO, Section of the Workers International, France, Labour, Liberal, Conservative Parties, Britain, Prussian Junkers, squirearchy of the east of the country. ‘Confessional Parties - Catholic Centre Party in Germany, Catholic orientated party)
Nationalist - Irish Nationalists, Czechs,
Religious - Catholic centre Party, Germany
State intervention - Immediately before the First World War, states were becoming more and more involved in the everyday lives of their populations
1.1 Constitutional systems an the rulers - 3
Political Parties -
In Britain, one strand of liberalism still clung to the ideas of laissez-faire (Abstention by governments from interfering in the workings of the free market) - Herbert Spencer champions
Bureaucracy -
19th Century - ‘rule from the bureau’ of office, a feature of the autocratic regimes in east and central Europe - most efficient is Germany especially Prussia say some
20th Century - German sociologist Max Weber - The ‘ideal type bureaucracy model has 4 attributes’ is 1) hierarchical - division of labour between different officials, 2) Continuity - full-time salaried occupations, 3) impersonal and without arbitrariness (no fear or favour -for King), 4) Professional and according to merit - this disliked by aristocracy
In practice (though not impossible) hard for a working class man to be elevated to a high position, class still counted, the hierarchical structure nearly always bound to favour status and money instead of merit
Book Reading - A companion to Europe (Waldron) - Chapter 11
Europe’s Political Structures range from Russian unreformed aristocracy to British near-constitutional monarchy and French Third Republic
Russia - Democracy frowned upon Tsar - ‘Senseless dreams’. 1905, The Duma parliament, Stolypin, Prime Minister, suggested social and economic reform, wanted small peasant landowners pro government - but failed by 1914. Guchkov, Octobrist - predicted in 1913 discontent of people due to poor government, crisis probable
Britain - Lords power curbed by Liberals in 1906, labour unrest, suffragettes, revolution remote but Irish unrest growing
Germany - 1871 creation, not as politically coherent as Britain, though limited revolutionary activity. Impulsive Kaiser tries to keep Reichstag (esp. SPD) under his thumb with little leeway a ‘personal regime’ , though this dislocated from people. Germany’s Weltpolitik - placing Germany at the centre of world politics - war could help unite a deeply fractured Germany
Book Reading - A companion to Europe (Waldron) - Chapter 11 - 2
Austria Hungary - still existing due to 1867 Ausgleich - compromise with Hungary (gets domestic autonomy) and avoids war. Austria defeated by Germany in 1866. Emperor still enjoys greater monarchical autonomy. Magyars worried about Slav growth. War - 1908 Bosnia and Herzegovina annexed by Austria probably sows the seeds of WWI as far as Italy s concerned - effort to build imperial loyalty
France - 3rd Republic formed after Alsace-Lorraine taken 1870. 108 administrations 1870 - 1914, French parliament lacks a proper party system until 1910 only French Socialist Party has any real coherence. After 1900 labour militancy/strikes. Clemenceau 1906, social reform, 8hr day, retirement pensions, industrial accident compensation, trade unions, Similar to 1906 Labour Gov UK. However resisted by conservatives. war greeted with popular unity and positive financial measures surprising as per Wadron.
Political failure before 1914 was to give Europe a bleak future after the end of World War 1. BUT Waldron was surprised at the popularity of and ease of mobilisation for war in 1914 given the inherent problems stated above.
A Balkans War - Conan Fischer
Austria-Hungary declares war against Serbia 28/7/1914 shells Belgrade - 3rd Balkan war
Triggered by Serbian ambition (assassination of pro Austrian King) and Austrian pessimism. Serbia wanted an outlet to the sea, but Albania created to thwart this
1908 Austria annexes Bosnia Herzegovina which had a sizeable Serb population makes Russia inclined to mobilise if Austria tries this again
1913 Serbia attacks Albania, Russia does a trial mobilisation but does not go all the way, Serbia backs down and Montenegro does to
The Black Hand organisation (Unity or Death) aids the anarchist group ‘Young Bosnia’ Gavrilo Princip et al
A Balkans War - Conan Fischer 2
28th June Serb festival of Vivovdan Serbs power struggle between government of Pasic and military including Dragutin Dimitrijevic Head of Serbian Military Intelligence and leader of The Black Hand
Dimitrijevic instructs officials to arm anarchists who entered Bosnia (Prime Minister investigates this)
Ultimatum from Austria to Serbia delivered whilst heads of Europe on holiday and in any case totally unacceptable to Serbia = war
Stage fright in European capitals but not in Austria, a sign of Austrian fatalism and Serbian pan-Slavonic ambition
A Balkans War - Conan Fischer 3
Austrian Fatalism
Conrad von Hotzendorf - “it will be a hopeless struggle, but nevertheless it must be because such an ancient monarchy cannot perish ingloriously” - even after the event there were few regrets
Count Czernin - ‘We had to die…but we could choose the means of our death, and we chose the most terrible
Austrian military governor in Bosnia Potiorek uses war to hide his incompetence re Archduke’s security during military manoeuvres and vet ti Sarajevo, Archduke wanted a pragmatic political solution
BBC Programme The First World War
The Kaiser used WW1 as a tool to complete unification as he was concerned that this had not as yet been achieved, unlike in GB
