introducing - studies

Question 1

Parsons - Gender

Answer 1

Females have an expressive role in the family, natural based on child bearing role reinforced by socialisation. Males have instrumental role (bread winner, protector), natural based on their physical strength, reinforced by socialisation. Biological view.

Question 2

Wilson - Gender

Answer 2

Biological view. The need to reproduce requires men to be more promiscuous, women on the other hand need to nurture one child and stay faithful to the father to ensure his health in its upbringing.

Question 3

Frosh - Gender

Answer 3

Social construction view. Boys who valued academic success and were committed to work were often seen as more feminine and teased by the students. Those who were anti-school and messed around were seen as more masculine.

Question 4

Mac an Ghaill - Gender and Sexuality

Answer 4

Boys learn how to be men in peer groups by policing their own and others sexuality. Hyper-masculinity was the main source of identity for macho lads who valued the 3F’s.

Question 5

Gauntlett - Gender

Answer 5

Magazines, films and TV shows show people how they should dress behave and act according to their gender. Dominant view; women should be beautiful and slim, while men should be athletic and muscular.

Question 6

Adkins - Gender

Answer 6

Women’s jobs, particular in the service sector, are based around their sexuality. Women are often chosen for their looks and expected to act in a way that appeals to men. They are also expected to cope with advances from male customers and are discouraged from responding negatively or aggressively.

Question 7

Holm - Gender

Answer 7

Women play subordinate roles to men in nearly all religions. They are not allowed to take part in many of the most important rituals and are blocked from top religious positions.

Question 8

Oakley - Gender

Answer 8

Children are socialised into gender identities by their parents in 3 ways: canalisation - given different toys to play with; verbal appellation - given different nicknames and referred to in ways that encourage them to identify with their gender; manipulation - encouraged to take part in activities appropriate to their gender and discouraged from behaving in ways inappropriate for their gender.

Question 9

Lees - Gender

Answer 9

Female peer groups place great stress on looking right. Girls learn that their appearance is crucial to their identity, in particular, it is important not to dress too sexy otherwise their reputation will be destroyed and they will be labelled as slags.

Question 10

Woodward and Winter - Gender

Answer 10

Sexing the soldier. British Army is a masculine institution, women are excluded from certain practises, suffer from bullying and are often seen as not having natural capabilities to soldier.

Question 11

Wilkinson - Gender

Answer 11

Young people are more confident and assertive and take it for granted that they can choose their own lifestyles. Young girls in particular, more confident, reject traditional females roles such as homemaker. Males are becoming more feminine and females are becoming more masculine as they both reject stereotypes.

Question 12

Connel - Gender

Answer 12

Range of masculine identities: hegemonic masculinity - strong tough, in-charge, successful and hetro-sexual, dominant form; complicit masculinity - less sexist and more in touch with their feelings; subordinate masculinity - homosexuality; marginalised masculinity - men suffering from the crisis of masculinity.

Question 13

Abbot - Gender

Answer 13

Big shifts in fashion styles for young men. Take a keen interest in clothes, hair and personal appearance. more confident in expressing themselves through the way they dress. Gaining pleasure through traditionally female focused field.

Question 14

Sharpe - Gender

Answer 14

1970’s girls focused on having children and getting married; 1990’s girls prioritising education and careers over family and marriage. Shows clear shift in female priorities.

Question 15

Jackson - Gender

Answer 15

Ladettes - girls who are anti-school and anti-education. Acted this way to fit in and be socially accepted and also as a defence mechanism; they were afraid of trying and failing so preferred not to try at all.

Question 16

Mac an Ghaill - Changing Gender

Answer 16

Decline in traditional male jobs, big rise in male unemployment, worried about fulfilling role as family breadwinner, crisis as men don’t know what their role is anymore.

Question 17

Post-modernism - Gender

Answer 17

Lines blurred between genders. Traditional roles less significant. Media displaying role models

Question 18

Postman - Age

Answer 18

Childhood emerged only when the spread of literacy enabled adults to shield children from various aspects of adult life creating the ‘innocent child’. He suggests that the emergence and spread of media, visual culture has brought about a decline in childhood and threatens to ultimately bring about its disappearance.

Question 19

Mead - Age

Answer 19

Storm and stress, associated with youth, is culturally specific and not found in all cultures.

Question 20

Bradley - Age

Answer 20

Middle age has higher status than youth or old age. Middle aged people are running the country and hold power at work.

Question 21

Willis - Age

Answer 21

Unemployment prevents young people from moving on to adult roles. They are unable to take on family responsibilities or plan for the future. They are unable to gain adult status and become bored and demoralised.

Question 22

Biggs - Age

Answer 22

Sitcoms tend to portray old people as enfeebled, vague and forgetful.

Question 23

Muncie - Age

Answer 23

In the media, youths are often presented as troublesome or deviant.

Question 24

Sontag - Age

Answer 24

For women in particular, youthfulness is presented in the media as an ideal to live up to.

Question 25

Featherstone and Hepworth - Age

Answer 25

Media images of ageing and stereo-types can also create new identities, for example, the popularity of retro fashion and come-back tours from bands of the 70’s and 80’s, are trends that help to blur the boundaries in the life course.

Question 26

McIntosh - Sexuality

Answer 26

The role of the homosexual male involves certain expectations or cultural characteristics. He argued that once a male has accepted the label or identity of homosexual, he will start to fulfil the expectations so the label actually creates the behaviour.

Question 27

Weeks - Sexuality

Answer 27

Sexual identity is more complex than other aspects of identity. There are people who identify themselves as gay and participate in the gay community but do not participate in same-sex sexual activity, but there are also people who do have same-sex sexual encounters who do not identify themselves as gay.

Question 28

Reiss - Sexuality

Answer 28

Male prostitutes or rent boys, regard themselves as hetro-sexual despite having sex with men for money. They actively despise the men as a way of neutralising their behaviour.

Question 29

Rich - Sexuality

Answer 29

Womens sexuality is oppressed by men in patriarchal society through institutions such as marriage which enforces compulsory hetro-sexuality. Women are socialised into a subordinate and hetro-sexual role ensuring their availability to men.

Question 30

Sexual Offences Act 1967

Answer 30

Legalised homosexuality but only in provate between two men, both of whom had attained the age of 21. The Act applied only to England and Wales and did not cover the Merchant Navy or Armed Forces. It is still illegal in over 70 countries and in some is punishable by death.

Question 31

Consent - January 2001

Answer 31

The age of consent for same sex couples was lowered to 16, the same as hetro-sexual age of consent.

Question 32

The Equality Act 2010

Answer 32

Unlawful to discriminate against any individual on the grounds of sexuality.

Question 33

Same sex marriage 2014

Answer 33

A change in the law which meant that same-sex couples could legally marry for the first time. More than 1400 same sex marriages took place in the first 3 months after they were made legal.

Question 34

Medical Model - Disability

Answer 34

Sees disability as a medical problem, focusing on the limitations caused by impairment. This approach leads to defining a disabled person by their disability or impairment.

Question 35

Social Model - Disability

Answer 35

Focuses on the social and physical barriers to inclusion that may exist, such as the design of buildings and public spaces that deny access to those with mobility problems or discriminatory attitudes and practices against those with disabilities. Society is disabling and disability is a social construct.

Question 36

IFC -Disability

Answer 36

Medical and social model are not separate, instead we should consider them as interlinked as both social and physical elements of disability impact our identity and experiences. We should consider a bio-social model.

Question 37

Shakespeare 1 - Disability

Answer 37

Disabled people are often socialised into this way of seeing themselves through the medical model which is often victim blaming. They see themselves as victims of their own impairment.

Question 38

Shakespeare 2 - Disability

Answer 38

Disabled people are often isolated from one another so forming strong collective identity is difficult. There is also a lack of positive role models in social life and the media.

Question 39

Scope Survey - Disability

Answer 39

2/3rds of people felt awkward talking to a disabled person. 43% of people don’t know anyone who is disabled which is statistically unlikely. Some disabilities are more visible than others. Less than 1/5th of people have disabilities that are congenital (from birth).

Question 40

Zola - Disability

Answer 40

The vocabulary that we use to describe ourselves is borrowed from discriminatory able bodied society. We are deformed, diseased, disabled, disordered, abnormal, and most telling of all, invalid.

Question 41

Murugami - Disability

Answer 41

A disabled person has the ability to construct a self identity that accepts their impairment but is independent to it. So they see themselves as a person first and see their disability as just one of their characteristics.

Question 42

Disability Discrimination Act 1995

Answer 42

Legal protection and enforceable rights for disabled people.

Question 43

Ghumann - Ethnicity

Answer 43

Age and family socialise children into particular values including being obedient, loyal and respectful of elders. Respect for religion, using their mother tongue and obligation to extended kin.

Question 44

Archer and Francis - Ethnicity

Answer 44

Chinese families place particular emphasis on the value of education. They make sacrifices to make sure their children are successful at school.

Question 45

Spencer et al -Ethnicity

Answer 45

Eastern European migrants spent relatively little time socialising with British people. British people don’t let immigrants into their circles.

Question 46

Gillborn - Ethnicity

Answer 46

Despite trying to treat everyone fairly, teachers tend to perceive students differently due to their ethnicity. In particular, they often saw the behaviour of black students as a threat where no threat was intended. Black students are more likely to be punished, as a result there is a lot of tension between white teachers and black students.

Question 47

Cottle - Ethnicity

Answer 47

Despite a big increase in the representation of ethnic minorities in the media, minorities are still overwhelmingly represented in negative ways.

Question 48

Jacobson - Ethnicity

Answer 48

Points out that young British Pakistanis see being Muslim as being more important than being Pakistani or British. Islam influences their identity in terms of their dress, diet, worship, behaviour and everyday routines. They may also use religion in a defensive way as a reaction to feeling excluded from white society.

Question 49

Sewell - Ethnicity

Answer 49

Identity of black teenagers is focused on being hyper-male and gangster in the eyes of their peers. This highly masculine identity stresses being ultra confident and challenging authority. Sewell argues that this identity is to compensate for the absence of a father figure in many black families, the way the education system treats black youths and racism in wider society.

Question 50

Hewitt - Ethnicity

Answer 50

The white backlash against multiculturalism. Polices designed to achieve equality have been perceived as unfair to the white community and a working white class person under pressure economically, has often reacted with anger at perceived positive discrimination in favour of ethnic minorities.

Question 51

Song - Ethnicty

Answer 51

Shows how many Chinese living in the UK are employed in the food and catering sector. This is connected to the importance of Chinese restaurants and takeaways. Also, over 1/3 of doctors in the NHS are described as Asian, this may link with the status that having a doctor in the family brings to Asian families.

Question 52

Winston James - Ethnicity

Answer 52

the experience of racism unified the culture and identity of African-Caribbeans in the UK. They have cultural differences based on their island of origin and may also be divided based on the darkness of their skin, a hierarchy of colour imposed by colonialism. however, in the UK,the common experience of racism had the effect of drawing African-Caribbeans together.

Question 53

Johal - Ethnicity

Answer 53

2nd and 3rd gen British Asians and found they adopt a dual identity because they inherit an Asian identity which is ascribed and they adopt a British one. he describes how asian youths adopt a ‘white mask’ so they can fit in with white people at school but they can show cultural difference when necessary.

Question 54

Ballard - Ethnicity

Answer 54

found that although there are major differences between Asian and mainstream culture, young Asians can navigate between the two cultures with ease. they ‘switch codes’. in their parents home they fit in to Asian expectations but outside they blend into mainstream lifestyles.

Question 55

Burdsey - Ethnicity

Answer 55

Studied young British Asian footballers and found they were strongly influenced by white and black teammates. In particular their identities were focused around designer clothes, and using alcohol and drugs. their ethnic identity was seen as a lower priority than their identity as a footballer and their main priority was fitting in.

Question 56

Ghuman - Ethnicity

Answer 56

studied Hindu and Sikh girls in the UK and described how they use ‘compartmentalism’ to cope with pressure from parents and racism in school. at home they wear traditional dress, speak Punjabi or Hindi, and act as a respectful daughter, but at school they wear English dress and are more assertive in their personalities like their English peers.

Question 57

modood - Ethnicity

Answer 57

mixed ethnicity relationships. 2 out of 5 children born to a black parent also have a white parent. nearly 20% of British men and 10% of British women with Indian or Asian origins live with white partners.

Question 58

Cashmore and Troyna - Ethnicity

Answer 58

there’s a tendency for ethnic minorities to turn inwards to seek support from within their own ethnic community as a response to the racism that they experience.

Question 59

Back - Ethnicity

Answer 59

white, Asian and Black young people in south London and found a great deal of inter ethnic friendship, interaction, and cultural borrowing. new identities were being formed which brought black and white people closer together, blurring divisions of race.

Question 60

Bourdieu - Class

Answer 60

different classes have different levels of economic, cultural and social capital. these are passed on from parents to children and affect the achievement and experience of children at school and university. working class children in uni feel like a fish out of water. the economic and social capital that a family has will be strongly linked to the occupations of the parents.

Question 61

Keddie - Class

Answer 61

there is a strong relationship between teachers perceptions of a child ability and their social class. children from middle class backgrounds are much more likely to be placed into top sets and those from working class backgrounds to be placed in bottom sets.

Question 62

Marx - Class

Answer 62

Religion maintains class inequality. it reinforces and justifies hierarchy and is used to distract the working class from their oppression.

Question 63

Mac an Ghail - Class

Answer 63

identified different peer groups that had developed in a school. these ted to be based around different social classes. for example t macho lads peer group were working class. they were placed in bottom sets, often misbehaved, and saw school work as feminine. their peer group was based around acting tough and looking after your mates.

Question 64

Feinstein - Class

Answer 64

middle class parents place more emphasis on the value of education than working class parents. the main factor being middle class achievement in education is the degree of parental interest and support

Question 65

Wilmot and Young - Class

Answer 65

working class families value family life more than middle class families who may see work and career as more important. this may be because working class families gain less satisfaction from work and compensate by focusing their attention on the family.

Question 66

Bruce - Class

Answer 66

women tend to be more spiritual and religious than men - types vary by class. working class women have beliefs in more passive religions with obscure forces beyond their control (fortune telling, superstition, astrology and charms) middle class tend to follow religions with more individual control and personal development (self-healing, meditation, Buddhism and Scientology)

Question 67

Mooney - Class

Answer 67

key feature of upper class is their invisibility. they operate social closure meaning that their education, leisure time and daily lives are separated from and invisible to the rest of the population.

Question 68

Glennon and Butsch

Answer 68

working class families are under represented and middle class families are over represented in the media. middle class parents portrayed as coping effectively with their problems. working class portrayed in comical ways as a figure of ridicule.

Question 69

Gray - Class

Answer 69

different classes use media differently. working class use use tv and video more than middle class. the higher the social class, the more concern about children using tv and video too much and more effort to control their use

Question 70

marxism - Class

Answer 70

Beiong part of the Bourgeoisie or the Proletariat was the main influence upon your life chances. the Bourgeoisie exploit the Proletariat. therefor class is a crucial factor in determining life chances

Question 71

Bourdieu (neo marxism) - Class

Answer 71

higher classes have more economic and social capital. culture of the higher classes is held in higher esteem. therefor they have more cultural capital. All three of these have a significant effect on life chances

Question 72

functionalism - Class

Answer 72

society is based on meritocracy (hard work +ability = reward). money and status are awarded based on merit. they disagree that a persons social class is a significant factor in their life chances

Question 73

Pakulski and Waters (post modernism) - Class

Answer 73

class is much less influencialon our identities in todays society. people used to follow class-based activities but now lifestyles are more diverse and flexible. identities are based around consumption rather than production. how we spend our money rather than how we earn it

Question 74

Hutton - Class

Answer 74

Decline in tyrade union memberships and the manufacturing sector, dispersal of working class communities, has eroded working class identities

Question 75

Van Dijk - Ethnicity

Answer 75

Black people tend to be portrayed as criminal, especially in tabloid press and more recently as members of organised gangs.