Intro to Sociology

Question 1

Research that describes a problem or situation.

Answer 1

descriptive
research

Question 2

A tentative statement of the relationship between two or more concepts.

Answer 2

hypothesis

Question 3

Replacing traditional motives, values, and emotions for social action with rational,
calculated ones, a replacement that leads to more efficient social institutions.

Answer 3

rationalization

Question 4

The name given to theories about society which claimed to apply concepts of natural
selection and survival of the fittest to sociology.

Answer 4

social Darwinism

Question 5

A factor that can vary or change from one case to another.

Answer 5

variable

Question 6

A type of field work in which the researcher observes and participates in the activity
being studied.

Answer 6

participant
observation

Question 7

: Physical fitness will be measured by the participant’s VO₂ max (aerobic capacity test), maximum push-ups performed in one minute, and body fat percentage as measured by bioelectrical impedance analysis.

This provides clear, measurable criteria for assessing physical fitness in a research or training setting.

Defines a trait or characteristic in terms of a process, test, or unit of measure that is
needed to determine its existence, duration, and quantity. It makes a hypothesis about a
characteristic testable.

Defines a trait or quality by explaining how to measure or test it to see if it exists, how long it lasts, or how much of it there is. This makes it possible to test a hypothesis about the trait.

Answer 7

operational
definition

Question 8

A type of field research in which the researcher observes what is being studied.

Answer 8

direct observation

Question 9

The relationship of cause and effect between variables.

Answer 9

causation

Question 10

Example of Organic Solidarity:

In a modern hospital, doctors, nurses, technicians, and administrators each have specialized roles, but they all rely on one another to provide patient care. Their interdependence creates organic solidarity, a concept from Émile Durkheim, where complex societies maintain social cohesion through division of labor and mutual reliance rather than shared values or traditions.

Answer 10

organic solidarity

Question 11

Social bonds in small traditional societies which are based on common values.

Answer 11

mechanical
solidarity

Question 12

A type of research focusing on observations or descriptions and using these to analyze
underlying meanings, patterns, or themes of social relationships.

Answer 12

qualitative

Question 13

A type of research focusing on data that can be measured numerically (typically
emphasizing complex statistical techniques.

Answer 13

quantitative

Question 14

Objects, words, or actions that stand for something else.

Answer 14

symbols

Question 15

The phenomenon that refers to a change in a subject’s behavior in an experiment or study
because they know they are being observed.

Answer 15

Hawthorne effect

Question 16

The stated, intended consequences of an institution, action, or social group.

Manifest Function Example

A manifest function refers to the intended and recognized outcomes of an action, institution, or social practice. It is a concept from sociology, particularly in functionalism, introduced by Robert K. Merton.

Example 1: Education System
• Manifest Function: The primary intended purpose of schools is to educate students by teaching them reading, writing, math, and critical thinking.
• Example: Schools provide structured learning that prepares students for careers and helps them become productive members of society.

Example 2: Social Media
• Manifest Function: The primary intended purpose of social media platforms is to connect people and facilitate communication.
• Example: Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter help people stay in touch with friends and family, share updates, and exchange information.

Example 3: Hospitals
• Manifest Function: Hospitals are designed to provide medical treatment and improve health.
• Example: Doctors and nurses treat patients, perform surgeries, and provide life-saving care.

These are all intended and explicit functions of these institutions. Would you like an example contrasting manifest vs. latent functions?

Answer 16

manifest function

Question 17

Any kind of communication between people that is understood to have meaning.

Answer 17

social interactions

Question 18

The extent or degree of statistical association among two or more variables.

Answer 18

correlation

Question 19

W.E.B. DuBois’ concept of a feeling of “twoness” where the experience of one’s identity
is fragmented into several contradictory facets, making it hard to develop a sense of self

Answer 19

double
consciousness

Question 20

In statistics, —- is a feature of the statistical technique or inputs, which causes the study
results not to accurately reflect reality.

Answer 20

bias

Question 21

A subset of the population observed for the purposes of making inferences about the
nature of the larger population of interest.

Answer 21

sample

Question 22

An applied practice of sociology that focuses on health intervention, such as working
with medical practitioners, community health services, social policy and public health
campaigns.

Answer 22

clinical sociology

Question 23

A process in society that contributes to the social system and its stability.

Answer 23

function

Question 24

A term that describes professionals who use sociological theories and methods outside of
academic settings in order to produce social change.

Answer 24

applied sociology

Question 25

The term coined by C. Wright Mills to describe a way of understanding the world that
involves thinking about things from different perspectives and putting personal
circumstances into a wider context.

Answer 25

sociological
imagination

Question 26

A process in society that disrupts the social system or reduces its stability.

Answer 26

dysfunction

Question 27

One of the most important rules that govern research on humans; it requires that
participants in a study are aware of all of the potential risks, health, emotional, that could
result from their participation.

Answer 27

informed consent

Question 28

A set of logically interrelated statements that attempts to describe, explain, and sometimes
predict social events.

Answer 28

theory

Question 29

The application of the scientific approach to the social world in order to understand it.

Example of Positivism:

A sociologist studying crime rates uses data, statistics, and scientific methods to identify patterns and causes rather than relying on personal opinions or moral judgments. This approach aligns with positivism, which emphasizes empirical evidence and objective analysis to understand social behavior.

Answer 29

positivism

Question 30

The academic study of social behavior using empirical investigation and analysis to draw
conclusions about social order, disorder, and change.

Answer 30

sociology

Question 31

A formal organization that has defined terms of membership, written governance, and
written communication, as well as a division of labor, responsibility, and accountability.

Answer 31

bureaucracy

Question 32

External circumstances or events that have an effect on the way individual people behave,
such as economy, religion, or government.

Answer 32

social facts

Question 33

Occurs when the differences between the groups being studied are the result of factors
other than chance.

Answer 33

statistically
significant

Question 34

The group (usually of people) about whom we want to be able to draw conclusions.

Answer 34

population

Question 35

The unconscious or unrecognized consequences of an action within the framework of a
social group.

Answer 35

latent function

The term latent refers to something that exists but is not yet visible, active, or realized. It describes a quality, potential, or condition that is present but dormant or concealed.

For example:
• In psychology, latent potential refers to abilities or talents that have not yet been expressed or developed.

Question 36

Research that explains why a social phenomenon occurs.

Answer 36

explanatory
research

Question 37

A systematic study of people and cultures, where the researcher observes the people or
society being studied from the point of view of the subject being studied.

Answer 37

ethnography

Question 38

A way of describing any individual’s behaviors and interests that do not conform to society’s expectations of that individual’s perceived gender.

Answer 38

gender-variant

Question 39

A large and comprehensive organization in a society that has a specific purpose.

Answer 39

institution

Question 40

Any technological channel of communication that reaches a significant portion of the population.

Answer 40

mass media

Question 41

A perception that we have of ourselves that can change and fluctuate in different social contexts.

Answer 41

self-image

Question 42

People and entities that influence an individual’s development of self and provide social environments and contexts.

Answer 42

agents of socialization

Question 43

A male-bodied individual who dresses in traditionally feminine clothing and exhibits feminine behavior that is often exaggerated for show or performance.

Answer 43

drag queen

Question 44

The way an individual defines their sexual attraction. Also referred to as sexual orientation.

Answer 44

sexual identity

Question 45

The initial stage in George Herbert Mead’s theory of the development of the self, where an infant mimics and imitates the simple actions and facial expressions they see others do. This stage precedes their ability to play or role-take.

Answer 45

preparatory

Question 46

Collective ideas about what is right or wrong, good or bad, and desirable or undesirable in a given culture.

Answer 46

values

Question 47

A fixed understanding that an individual has of themselves regardless of social context.

Answer 47

self-concept

Question 48

The inclination of an individual’s sexual attraction.

Answer 48

sexual orientation

Question 49

The process by which people discover themselves in relation to their society.

Answer 49

socialization

Question 50

Figures who significantly impact a child’s life enough to affect their observations and internalization of social behavior. Also known as significant others.

Answer 50

particular others

Question 51

The condition where an individual is born with biological characteristics that are both male and female.

Answer 51

intersex

Question 52

An activity done for pleasure that lacks structure or rules.

Answer 52

play

Question 53

The study of the roles, attitudes, and behaviors that are appropriate for a particular stage of life.

Answer 53

life course

Question 54

An umbrella term describing anyone whose gender identity does not match their assigned physical sex.

Answer 54

transgender

Question 55

The social environment that forms certain attributes of an individual.

Answer 55

nurture

Question 56

Cultural expectations or rules for behavior.

Answer 56

norm

Question 57

Demands and expectations for behavior agreed upon by a culture or society.

Answer 57

Social norms

Question 58

The fundamental and often first social group for an individual; a family frequently consists of biological relatives to the individual, but more generally, it has strong emotional ties to and is instrumental in raising the individual.

Answer 58

family

Question 59

….. refers to the social component that reflects not only a person’s biological identity but the cultural and social values and roles assigned to that identity.

Answer 59

gender

Question 60

Individuals who belong to the same social group, typically based on factors like age and/or economic standing.

Answer 60

peers

Question 61

A common synonym for “homosexual,” often (but not always) referring to men.

Answer 61

gay

Question 62

The identity given by a person’s biological sex characteristics.

Answer 62

sex

Question 63

Public ceremonies or rituals recognizing the transition of a person from one group or status to another.

Answer 63

rites of passage

Question 64

An individual’s perception of his or her identity, which is formed and developed by social interactions and immersion in society.

Answer 64

self

Question 65

The orientation in which one’s primary sexual attraction is toward the opposite sex.

Answer 65

heterosexuality

Question 66

Acronym standing for “lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender,” which is used to refer to nonheterosexual and transgender people.

Answer 66

LGBT

Question 67

An activity done for pleasure that has definitive rules, organization, and structure.

Answer 67

game

Question 68

The chronic absence of sexual attraction toward any sex or gender identity.

Answer 68

asexuality

Question 69

A common term for homosexual women.

Answer 69

lesbian

Question 70

The orientation in which one has sexual attraction toward any sex or gender identity.

Answer 70

bisexuality

Question 71

A female-bodied individual who exhibits traditionally masculine behaviors and interests, such as dressing in masculine clothing or participating in masculine physical activities.

Answer 71

tomboy

Question 72

The orientation in which one’s primary sexual attraction is toward the same sex.

Answer 72

homosexuality

Question 73

A form of advertising that targets and appeals to a specific gender in order to sell a product or service.

Answer 73

gendered marketing

Question 74

The process of mentally taking on the role of others in order to understand ideal or appropriate social behavior.

Answer 74

role-taking

Question 75

An individual whose gender identity is the opposite of their assigned physical sex, who often desires to align their physical body with their mental gender identity through some medical means (such as hormone replacement therapy or surgical sex reassignment).

Answer 75

transsexual

Question 76

The state of being in between two life stages.

Answer 76

liminal state

Question 77

Societal norms and conventions that define what behaviors and characteristics should be aligned with each sex.

Answer 77

gender roles

Question 78

Charles Horton Cooley’s concept of the process of individuals evaluating themselves based on how they imagine other people view them.

Answer 78

looking-glass self

Question 79

The biological or genetic attributes and predispositions of an individual.

Answer 79

nature

Question 80

Constitutes the full development of the individual; involves the generalized other.

Answer 80

social self

Question 81

All of the statuses one person has at a given time.

Answer 81

status set

Question 82

Groups comprised of secondary members that organize for an explicit purpose.

Answer 82

formal organizations

Question 83

The response to social strain of rejecting both the socially approved goal and the legitimate means to achieve it.

Answer 83

retreatism

Retreatism is a concept from Robert Merton’s Strain Theory in sociology, which describes a mode of adaptation where individuals reject both cultural goals and the means to achieve them, often withdrawing from society.

Example of Retreatism:

A person who becomes disillusioned with societal expectations of success and chooses to live off the grid, completely detached from mainstream life, exemplifies retreatism. This could be someone who abandons a conventional career, stops engaging in social norms, and instead chooses a reclusive life in a remote area, relying on minimal resources.

Other examples include chronic drug addiction or homelessness (when not by choice), where individuals withdraw from social structures and reject societal ambitions altogether.

Question 84

Society’s attempts to regulate and govern people’s behavior, which can be through formal or informal means.

Answer 84

social control

Question 85

Preferences, advantages, and favorable judgment given to members of one’s in-group over members of an out-group.

Answer 85

in-group favoritism

Question 86

People with whom an individual shares a functional relationship; the length of interaction is typically shorter and oriented around a common task.

Answer 86

secondary group

Question 87

A special status that more completely defines a person than the other statuses he or she has.

Answer 87

master status

Question 88

The tension among the role expectations associated with one status.

Answer 88

role strain

Question 89

The process of maintaining or changing behavior to comply with the norms established by a society, subculture, or other group; in Merton’s structural strain theory, the response to structural strain of pursuing socially approved goals by legitimate means.

Answer 89

conformity

Question 90

…….. is a concept from sociology, particularly from Robert Merton’s strain theory, which describes a situation where individuals rigidly adhere to societal rules and norms but lose sight of the intended goals behind them. Instead of striving for success or personal fulfillment, they focus on following routines and established procedures, even if they no longer lead to meaningful outcomes. This can be seen in bureaucracies where people strictly follow regulations without questioning their purpose.

The response to social strain of giving up on or rejecting the socially approved goal, but sticking with the legitimate means to achieve that goal.

Answer 90

ritualism

Question 91

The expectations about the behaviors, actions, and qualities of someone occupying a certain status.

Answer 91

role expectation

Question 92

Social bonding theory suggests that strong social ties prevent individuals from engaging in deviant behavior.

Example: Teen Crime Prevention

A teenager involved in school activities, sports, and a supportive family is less likely to engage in delinquency. Their strong bonds to family, education, and community create a sense of responsibility and discourage criminal behavior, aligning with social bonding theory.

Answer 92

social bonding theory

Question 93

A group of people with whom an individual maintains close, personal relationships, such as friends and family.

Answer 93

primary group

Question 94

Organization that an individual joins willingly because its purpose aligns with his or her interests, beliefs, or values.

Answer 94

voluntary organization

Question 95

The attitude or opinion that the norms, values, and customs of one’s own culture are superior to those of other people’s, or the act of judging another group’s heritage or culture by the standards and values inherent in one’s own culture.

Answer 95

ethnocentrism

Question 96

A group to which an individual feels that he or she does not belong and does not identify with.

Answer 96

out-group

Question 97

Actions, behaviors, traits, or characteristics that violate socially accepted standards or norms.

Answer 97

deviance

Question 98

A group to which an individual feels that he or she belongs.

Answer 98

in-group

Question 99

The practice of thinking or making decisions as a group in a way that discourages creativity or individual responsibility.

Example of Groupthink: The Challenger Disaster

In 1986, NASA engineers had concerns about the space shuttle Challenger’s O-ring seals in cold weather. However, due to pressure to stay on schedule and maintain unity, decision-makers dismissed these warnings. The shuttle tragically exploded shortly after launch. This is a classic example of groupthink, where the desire for consensus (general agreement among group) and cohesion led to poor decision-making and overlooked critical risks.

Answer 99

groupthink

Question 100

The typology of responses to a mismatch between socially goals and access to legitimate means for achieving the goals.

Example of Structural Strain Theory: Economic Inequality and Crime

A young man from a low-income neighborhood aspires to achieve financial success but lacks access to quality education and well-paying jobs. Feeling pressure to succeed but facing limited opportunities, he turns to illegal activities, such as theft or drug dealing, to achieve his goals.

This aligns with Robert Merton’s Structural Strain Theory, which suggests that when society sets cultural goals (like wealth and success) but provides unequal access to legitimate means of achieving them, individuals may resort to deviant behavior to bridge the gap.

Answer 100

structural strain theory

Question 101

An enterprise run by individuals who engage in illegal activity, usually for money or profit, that often involves the sale of illegal goods and services.

Answer 101

organized crime

Question 102

The response to social strain of rejecting both the socially promoted goal and the legitimate means to attain it, while substituting new goals and means.

Example of Rebellion (from Merton’s Strain Theory):

A young activist rejects mainstream societal goals of wealth and status and instead advocates for an alternative way of living, such as communal living and self-sufficiency. They also reject traditional means like corporate jobs and higher education, choosing instead to promote radical social change through protests and independent initiatives.

This reflects rebellion, where individuals reject both society’s established goals and means, replacing them with their own values and strategies.

Answer 102

rebellion

Question 103

A crime that involves only the perpetrator or two consenting adults, such as the consumption of illegal drugs or prostitution.

Answer 103

victimless crime

Question 104

An individual’s position in a group or society defined by certain associated benefits and responsibilities.

Answer 104

status

Question 105

An evaluation and unjustifiable attitude toward a group and its members.

Answer 105

prejudice

Question 106

A crime that is motivated by biases based on characteristics of the victim such as race, gender, gender identity, religion, disability, sexual orientation, and ethnicity.

Answer 106

hate crime

Question 107

The set of attitudes and behaviors appropriate for a certain status.

Answer 107

role

Question 108

The process by which certain human attitudes and behaviors are redefined as medical conditions, and therefore treated as a disease or illness.

Answer 108

medicalization

Question 109

A smaller group of people within a larger group.

Answer 109

faction

Question 110

Example of Informational Social Influence:

Answer 110

A person dining at a fancy restaurant for the first time is unsure which utensil to use for each course. Observing others at the table, they follow their lead, assuming the group has the correct knowledge. This is informational social influence, where individuals conform because they believe others have more accurate information in an unfamiliar situation.

A dynamic of conformity that describes the tendency to assume that the group judgment or answer is accurate.

Question 111

Occurs when an individual or group must weigh personal benefit against the well-being of society.

Answer 111

social dilemma

Question 112

A behavior or action that violates a society’s legal code.

Answer 112

crime

Question 113

A leader focused on the group’s morale and dynamics; typically this person acts as a mediator and motivator.

Answer 113

expressive leader

Question 114

An intentional or unintentional act which adversely affects a person or group’s opportunities because of race, color, religion, sex, disability, marital status, national origin, age, or other factors.

Answer 114

discrimination

Question 115

Edwin Sutherland’s theory that states people learn criminal behavior from others in their communities; that is, criminal behavior is taught.

Answer 115

differential association

Question 116

The experience of occupying two (or more) statuses with conflicting roles.

Answer 116

role conflict

Question 117

Any group to which an individual compares him or herself.

Answer 117

reference group

Question 118

A culturally mandated set of values, beliefs, and behaviors that reflects and enforces culture; norms are created and maintained by groups.

Answer 118

norm

Question 119

The theory that how people are labeled or identified will influence the self-identification and behavior of the people labeled.

Answer 119

labeling theory

Question 120

When the means used to achieve a goal become more important than the goal itself.

Answer 120

goal displacement

Question 121

An organization that maintains membership through payment.

Answer 121

utilitarian organization

ZGYM

Question 122

Nonviolent crime often committed by business professionals or someone of high social status who is motivated by financial gain.

Answer 122

white-collar crime

Question 123

A leader focused on completing the task at hand, reaching goals, and ensuring that each individual is completing his or her work.

Answer 123

instrumental leader

Question 124

social loafing
(Me)

Answer 124

When members of a group exert less effort on a common task than when working individually.

Question 125

In sociology, people who share a trait or characteristic, such as Americans of Irish descent.

Answer 125

category

Question 126

A formal organization that has defined terms of membership, written governance, and written communication, as well as a division of labor, responsibility, and accountability.

Answer 126

bureaucracy

Question 127

In Merton’s structural strain theory, when people accept society’s goals but adopt alternative (disapproved) means of achieving those goals; in globalization, the process by which an organization generates new ideas and converts them into new products, business practices, and strategies that create shareholder value.

Answer 127

innovation

Question 128

An organization that an individual is forced to join; these organizations often work to resocialize their members to conform to specific, strict rules for behavior and attitude.

Answer 128

coercive organization

Question 129

aggregate

Answer 129

People that come together in proximity for a short period of time, without regularity, and without knowing one another.

Question 130

A negative label attached to a person, behavior, or circumstance to distinguish that person or thing from the rest of society.

Answer 130

stigma

Question 131

A certain rank or position in an organization beyond which women have difficulty being successfully promoted.

Answer 131

glass ceiling

Question 132

A social concept that groups certain people together based on physical traits like skin color, though there is no biological basis for such categorization.

Answer 132

race

Question 133

Theory that assumes that class conflict is inevitable in society, and that those in the dominant class will use prejudice as a means to oppress those in the economically deprived lower classes.

Answer 133

conflict theory (of prejudice)

Question 134

A generalization about an entire category of people; it is generally presumed to describe a ‘typical’ member of that category.

Answer 134

stereotype

Question 135

The sociological principle that states that we categorize other people on the basis of what is most noticeable (most salient) about them.

Answer 135

salience principle

Question 136

An analysis by Immanuel Wallerstein that divides the world into nations from most to least wealthy: core, semiperiphery, and periphery nations; the core nations dominate the world economically and politically.

Answer 136

world systems analysis

Question 137

The rationale (often unfounded) that victims of abuse or assault are partially or entirely at fault for their suffering.

Answer 137

victim blaming

Question 138

Societal norms and conventions that define what behaviors and characteristics should be aligned with each sex.

Answer 138

gender roles

Question 139

The use of scientific theories, techniques, or research to rationalize racism, categorization of people, and racial superiority.

Answer 139

scientific racism

Question 140

A policy that requires institutions to favor under-represented minorities when determining whether to recruit or promote them.

Answer 140

Affirmative Action

Question 141

A type of discrimination or abuse of power consisting of verbal or physical abuse of a sexual nature.

Answer 141

sexual harassment

Question 142

A period of time that new fathers take off from work following the birth of their baby or babies.

Answer 142

paternity leave

Question 143

A period of time that new mothers take off from work following the birth of their baby or babies.

Answer 143

maternity leave

Question 144

A nation that lacks the industrialization and wealth of other nations; under world systems analysis, —- nations transfer wealth to —- nations.

Answer 144

periphery nation; core nations

Question 145

Geographic areas that have high concentrations of a particular ethnicity, prevailing cultural norms, and in some cases, distinct economic systems.

Answer 145

ethnic enclave

Question 146

Status given by society that the individual has no control over.

Answer 146

ascribed status

Question 147

A country that currently lacks the resources and structures to provide advancement, comfort, and productive work opportunities for the majority of its residents.

Answer 147

developing countries

Question 148

The designation of a given occupation as either “female” or “male,” generally based on societal perception of gender roles.

Answer 148

gender typing

Nurse vs mechanic

Question 149

The areas of study and professions in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.

Answer 149

STEM fields

Question 150

When co-workers and/or a supervisor engage in unwelcome sexually-charged behavior making the workplace atmosphere intimidating, hostile, or offensive.

Answer 150

hostile work environment harassment

Question 151

——— generally refers to a person’s cultural identity, derived from a shared sense of cultural, ancestral, and/or national identity.

Answer 151

ethnicity

Question 152

The process by which people discover themselves in relation to their society.

Answer 152

socialization

Question 153

A wealthy nation that is part of the global elite.

Answer 153

core nation

Question 154

A generalization made about an entire racial or ethnic category of people.

Answer 154

racial-ethnic stereotype

Question 155

Theory that states that prejudice is a learned behavior; because prejudice is part of the culture that surrounds us all, it is present in all members of society to a greater or lesser degree.

Answer 155

culture theory (of prejudice)

Question 156

A country that reflects indicators of advancement, comfort, and productivity, such as quality infrastructure (good roads and highways or efficient power grids) and a well-educated and technologically sophisticated workforce.

Answer 156

developed countries

Question 157

Gender refers to the social component that reflects not only a person’s biological identity but the cultural and social values and roles assigned to that identity.

Answer 157

gender

Question 158

The underlying societal attitude that drives any form of racism.

Answer 158

systemic racism

Question 159

A set of genes that creates a certain physical appearance.

Answer 159

phenotype

Question 160

Theory that holds that class, race, and gender are all intertwined, and interact to create different levels of disadvantage in society.

Answer 160

intersectionality

Question 161

The increase of population in city areas, mainly due to mass migrations, and the subsequent growth of urban areas to accommodate the increase of numbers.
The increase of population in city areas, mainly due to mass migrations, and the subsequent growth of urban areas to accommodate the increase of numbers.

Answer 161

urbanization

Question 162

Conscious, known bias that a person harbors toward or against a particular group.

Answer 162

explicit bias

Question 163

Racism that is embedded into institutions; policies, laws, and practices that disproportionately favor or disadvantage one race over another.

Answer 163

institutional racism

Question 164

The state of living without reliable access to basic resources needed for survival, such as nutritious food, clean water, and decent shelter.

Answer 164

absolute poverty

Question 165

Status that someone earns through his or her personal qualities.

Answer 165

achieved status

Question 166

The act of men in female-dominated occupations being promoted through the ranks at a faster rate than their female coworkers.

Answer 166

glass escalator

Question 167

Bias (associations, preferences, and prejudices) formed and harbored unconsciously through one’s lifelong interaction with people, media, school, and even language.

Answer 167

implicit bias

Question 168

A system of social and economic stratification within a population based on wealth and economic standing, which offers the opportunity for social mobility.

Answer 168

class system

Question 169

A society in which women hold the dominant power.

Answer 169

matriarchy

Question 170

The process by which ethnic groups gradually give up their distinctive culture and traditions to adopt the patterns of the dominant culture.

Answer 170

assimilation

Question 171

A socially constructed way of describing personality traits, characteristics, and interests that are traditionally linked to male-bodied people.

Answer 171

masculine

Question 172

The definition of financial circumstances below which an individual or family is considered ‘poor,’ usually determined by census statistics.

Answer 172

poverty line

Question 173

When a person in authority, usually a supervisor, demands sexual favors of a subordinate as a condition of getting or keeping a job benefit.

Answer 173

quid pro quo harassment

Question 174

A measure of income or consumption inequality; a Gini coefficient of 0 indicates perfect equality, while a Gini coefficient of 1 indicates complete inequality.

Answer 174

Gini coefficient

Question 175

An intentional or unintentional act which adversely affects employment opportunities because of race, color, religion, sex, handicap, marital status, or national origin, or other factors such as age.

Answer 175

discrimination

Question 176

Marx’s theory that the working conditions of capitalism leads people to be estranged from themselves and society.

Answer 176

alienation

Question 177

The phenomenon of there being far more women living in poverty than men.

Answer 177

feminization of poverty

Question 178

The identity given by a person’s biological sex characteristics.

Answer 178

sex

Question 179

The ownership of another human being.

Answer 179

slavery

Question 180

A fairly rigid system of social stratification that offers little to no social mobility, and which often determines a person’s occupation, who they can marry, and even (in some cases) who they can touch.

Answer 180

caste system

Question 181

A society in which racial and ethnic groups are distinct, but have equal social standing; minority groups do not have to give up their distinctive lifestyles and cultural traditions in order to avoid prejudice and discrimination, and all groups have a roughly equal share of resources and political power.

Answer 181

pluralist society

Question 182

Both a sociological perspective and a political movement that recognizes inequalities between the sexes and seeks to remedy those inequalities so that society provides equal treatment of and opportunity for all genders.

Answer 182

feminism

Question 183

Emphasis on tasks, goals, and external affairs of the family unit regarding status, reputation, and relationship to other social institutions.

Answer 183

instrumentality

Question 184

The separation of people by gender, particularly prominent in occupations.

Answer 184

gender segregation

Question 185

A society in which men hold the dominant power.

Answer 185

patriarchy

Question 186

Emphasis on the internal affairs and emotional balance of the family unit.

Answer 186

expressiveness

Question 187

The state of being poor, or living without a certain amount of materials and possessions that would otherwise make life comfortable or luxurious.

Answer 187

poverty

Question 188

The theory that prejudice arises from the frustration of those who are economically or socially disadvantaged, who then turn that aggression against others who are lower on the social hierarchy.

Scapegoat Theory of Prejudice

The scapegoat theory of prejudice suggests that individuals or groups blame others—usually those with less power—for their own problems, frustrations, or societal issues. This theory is rooted in psychological and sociological perspectives, emphasizing how frustration can lead to displaced aggression.

Key Ideas:
1. Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis – When people face difficulties (e.g., economic struggles, job loss), they often feel frustrated. Instead of addressing the true cause (which may be complex or out of their control), they redirect their anger toward a scapegoat—a more vulnerable or socially marginalized group.
2. Targeting the Less Powerful – Scapegoats are often minority groups or those with limited power in society, as they are easier to blame without significant consequences.
3. Psychological Relief – Blaming others provides a sense of relief and justification for one’s struggles, reinforcing stereotypes and discrimination.

Examples:
• Economic Hardship & Immigration: During economic downturns, immigrants are often blamed for “taking jobs,” even when economic struggles are caused by larger systemic issues.
• Anti-Semitism in Nazi Germany: The Nazi regime blamed Jewish people for Germany’s economic and social problems, leading to widespread discrimination and genocide.
• Post-9/11 Islamophobia: After the 9/11 attacks, many Muslims and Middle Eastern individuals faced discrimination and were unfairly blamed for terrorism, despite the actions of a small extremist group.

Why It Matters

Scapegoating can lead to increased prejudice, discrimination, and even violence against targeted groups. Understanding this theory helps in recognizing unfair biases and addressing systemic issues rather than blaming vulnerable populations.

Would you like a historical case study or psychological experiment related to scapegoat theory?

Answer 188

scapegoat theory (of prejudice)

Question 189

The systematic killing of one group of people by another.

Answer 189

genocide

Question 190

The categorization and ranking of groups of people to form a social and economic hierarchy.

Example:
In the U.S., wealthier families can afford better schools, while lower-income families often have limited access to quality education. This gap reinforces ———, as better education leads to higher-paying jobs, keeping economic inequalities in place.

Answer 190

social stratification

Question 191

An economic system characterized by private or corporate ownership of capital goods rather than by the government.

Answer 191

capitalism

Question 192

The state of living below in impoverished circumstances compared to the comfort and wealth of the rest of society.

Answer 192

relative poverty

Question 193

The difference between the average earnings by men and the average earnings by women.

Answer 193

gender wage gap

Question 194

What every human needs in order to survive, be healthy, and be protected, such as nutritious food, clean water, and decent shelter.

Answer 194

basic needs

Question 195

A social philosophy that promotes the improvement and perpetuation of desirable genetic qualities by encouraging people with those traits to procreate, and discouraging, limiting, or preventing (such as with sterilization) people without those qualities from procreating.

Answer 195

eugenics

Question 196

The physical and social separation of different racial or ethnic groups.

Answer 196

segregation

Question 197

The ability for people to change their class positions in society.

Answer 197

social mobility

Question 198

A socially constructed way of describing personality traits, characteristics, and interests that are traditionally linked to female-bodied people.

Answer 198

feminine

Question 199

A social and economic category within a caste system, into which a person is born, determining his or her social and economic status within society, and which cannot be changed.

Answer 199

caste

Question 200

A recently formed and different religion that is at odds with the current dominant society or religion; also sometimes called new religion.

Answer 200

cult

Question 201

A worldview which accepts or values multiple religions coexisting in the same society.

Answer 201

pluralism

Question 202

A family in which at least one of the adults is a stepparent.

Answer 202

stepfamily

Question 203

The worship of or belief in multiple gods.

Answer 203

polytheism

Question 204

The phenomenon of changes in weather patterns on a global scale due to the increase of temperature on the earth’s surface.

Answer 204

climate change

Question 205

The use of educational achievements to determine who is eligible for jobs, even if the degree does not apply to the actual job.

Answer 205

credential society

Question 206

The act of making air, land, water, and other aspects of the environment dirty or unsafe for humans and wildlife.

Answer 206

pollution

Question 207

The development of technological and systemic changes that will meet current production demands without causing further damage to the environment.

Answer 207

sustainable development

Question 208

The use of education to determine a person’s social standing.

Answer 208

social placement

Question 209

A set of actions, often ceremonial in nature, performed mainly for their symbolic or religious value.

Answer 209

ritual

Question 210

Someone who inspires people within an organization because of his or her apparent extraordinary gifts or qualities.

Answer 210

charismatic leader

Question 211

A system in which men hold the power and women are excluded from power.

Answer 211

patriarchy

Question 212

A dispersed group of people who share a similar interest but do not interact.

Answer 212

mass

Question 213

The average number of years a person born in a given country is expected to live if mortality rates at each age remain the same in the future.

Answer 213

life expectancy

Question 214

A religious organization with its own doctrine, clergy, and central governing body.

Answer 214

church

Question 215

The tendency of people to marry others with similar characteristics as them.

Answer 215

homogamy

Question 216

The belief that inanimate objects have souls because of a supernatural power that controls the material universe.

Answer 216

animism

Question 217

Connections between individuals that are established through ancestry, marriage, or adoption.

Answer 217

kinship

Question 218

A state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being.

Answer 218

health

Question 219

The constant pressure experienced by those in capitalist societies to meet the economic demand for profit and growth.

Answer 219

treadmill of production

Question 220

Emotional, physical, or sexual abuse between family members.

Answer 220

family violence

Question 221

The increase of temperature on the earth’s surface on a global scale.

Answer 221

global warming

Question 222

The fundamental and often first social group for an individual; a family frequently consists of biological relatives to the individual, but more generally, it has strong emotional ties to and is instrumental in raising children.

Answer 222

family

Question 223

secularization

Answer 223

The shifting in focus of a religion from spiritual concerns to concerns of this world, or the process in which religion loses its social and cultural significance.

Question 224

A subdivision of a larger religious group with members who usually share somewhat different beliefs from the dominant group.

Answer 224

sect

Question 225

A new norm that defines behavior in ambiguous situations, usually developed as part of a crowd.

Answer 225

emergent norm

Question 226

A way of explaining the rights and responsibilities of a person who is ill.

Answer 226

sick role

Question 227

An organized system of spiritual beliefs and practices, usually offering a moral code and a worldview.

Answer 227

religion

Question 228

A family consisting of a couple and their children from this and all previous relationships.

Answer 228

blended family

Question 229

An organized group of people dedicated to changing (or dedicated to resisting change to) a cultural norm, behavior, or value.

Answer 229

social movement

Question 230

The act of cutting down trees and reducing forests for the sake of industries such as logging and agriculture.

Answer 230

deforestation

Question 231

The practice in most industrialized cultures when a married couple finds a new place to live that is not in the household of either set of their parents.

Answer 231

neolocality

Question 232

A lack of belief in the existence of a deity.

Answer 232

atheism

Question 233

An arrangement where two people living together are engaged in an intimate relationship but are not married.

Answer 233

cohabitation

Question 234

A non-institutionalized activity in which large numbers of people voluntarily participate.

Answer 234

collective behavior

Question 235

A society’s formal system of teaching knowledge and skills.

Answer 235

education

Question 236

An independent branch of a larger church with members who might disagree with certain aspects of the church’s teaching but who still subscribe to its main message.

Answer 236

denomination

Question 237

A traditional story of a people or culture that serves to explain some natural phenomenon, the origin of humanity, or customs or religious rites.

Answer 237

myth

Question 238

A trend in the 1940s and 1950s in which there grew to be increasing reliance on, and spread of, new strains of high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of crops like corn, wheat, rice, millet, and sorghum.

Answer 238

Green Revolution

Question 239

A family composed of two parents and their children.

Answer 239

nuclear family

Question 240

A general measure of health. It is the number of children dying under one year of age, divided by the number of live births during the year, multiplied by 1,000 for a given region.

Answer 240

infant mortality rate

Question 241

The assets a person has that are not financial, such as education, patterns of speech, tastes, and manner of dress, which take time and energy to acquire.

Answer 241

cultural capital

Question 242

The common practice in some cultures that involves living with or near the husband’s parents.

Answer 242

patrilocal

Question 243

A social and legal union that usually involves economic cooperation, sexual activity, and childbearing.

Answer 243

marriage

Question 244

A system to restore or maintain, especially by trained professionals, mental and physical well-being.

Answer 244

health care

Question 245

The common practice in some cultures that involves living with or near the wife’s parents.

Answer 245

matrilocal

Question 246

A family that includes more members than just parents and children, such as grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins.

Answer 246

extended family

Question 247

Someone who does not know if gods or supernatural entities exist.

Answer 247

agnostic

Question 248

The worship of or belief in a single god.

Answer 248

monotheism

Question 249

An object, word, or action that stands for something else.

Answer 249

symbol

Question 250

Materials that contain potential energy, formed from organic decay that has been converted to crude oil, coal, natural gas, or heavy oils by exposure to heat and pressure in the earth’s crust over billions of years.

Answer 250

fossil fuels

Question 251

Resources that cannot be naturally replenished at a rate equal to their consumption. Examples include natural gas, oil, and coal, whose formation takes billions of years.

Answer 251

nonrenewable

Question 252

The belief that each person has a spiritual connection or kinship with animals or plants.

Answer 252

totemism

Question 253

A large number of people in close proximity who may or may not interact with each other.

Answer 253

crowd

Question 254

What did Emile Durkheim’s research on suicide reveal?

Answer 254

Suicide rates were higher in areas where an individual’s ties to their group were disrupted or distorted.

Question 255

Which idea did Auguste Comte introduce to the field of sociology?

Answer 255

Positivism

Question 256

Which sociological perspective assumes that social life is shaped by the meanings people associate with things?

Answer 256

Symbolic interactionism

Question 257

Which sociological perspective views society as being made up of groups competing for scarce resources?

Answer 257

Conflict

Question 258

Which ethical dilemma in sociological research does Laud Humphry’s study on social interactions between men in public restrooms highlight?

Answer 258

Misleading research subjects

Question 259

Sociologists must consider the potential physical and emotional risks that participants may be exposed to during a research study.

Which issue does this consideration address?

Answer 259

Ethical standards

Question 260

What are sociologists practicing when they evaluate cultures without judging them?

Answer 260

Cultural relativism

Question 261

Ethnocentrism

Answer 261

Ethnocentrism refers to the tendency of individuals or groups to judge other cultures, practices, or beliefs by the standards and values of their own culture. It involves viewing one’s own culture as superior or more correct than others, often leading to a biased perspective and negative attitudes towards different cultural practices or customs. Ethnocentrism can hinder understanding and appreciation of cultural diversity, as it limits openness to different ways of thinking and living.

Question 262

Symbolic culture

Answer 262

Symbolic culture refers to the non-material aspects of culture that include symbols, meanings, norms, values, and language.

An example of symbolic culture is language. Language itself is a symbolic system that uses words, gestures, and symbols to convey meaning. Each word or gesture represents something specific within a particular culture.

These elements are not physical or tangible but play crucial roles in shaping the beliefs, behaviors, and interactions of individuals within a society. Symbolic culture encompasses everything from rituals and ceremonies to shared beliefs and social norms, providing a framework through which members of a society interpret and navigate their world. It highlights how meaning is created and communicated through various symbols and cultural practices, influencing social cohesion and identity formation

Question 263

Culture shock

Answer 263

Culture shock is the feeling of disorientation and anxiety that people experience when they encounter unfamiliar cultural norms, behaviors, and expectations, especially when moving to a new country or cultural environment. It involves adjusting to new customs, language, food, social norms, and ways of living, which can be challenging and overwhelming at first.

Question 264

A group of teachers teaching in the same neighborhood of Los Angeles meet regularly about family and ethnicity issues they encounter in their daily work.

What is this an example of?

Answer 264

Subculture

Question 265

Counterculture

Answer 265

(Hippies) Counterculture refers to a cultural movement that opposes mainstream norms and values, often promoting alternative lifestyles and viewpoints. It challenges the dominant culture’s beliefs and practices, aiming to create social change and express dissent

Question 266

What role do a culture’s values play in social interactions?

Answer 266

Values define a culture’s standards for good and bad, beautiful and ugly, right and wrong.

Question 267

How does the workplace act as an agent of socialization?

Answer 267

It is an environment where one can acquire new perspectives of the world.

Question 268

According to studies of socialization through the “life course” in modern society, which group characteristically grapples most with the question “Who am I?” and struggles to carve out a group identity?

Answer 268

Adolescents, ages 13 to 17

Question 269

Where do most people first encounter gender socialization?

Answer 269

Family

Question 270

What does George Herbert Mead’s term “generalized other” refer to in relation to the development of the self?

Answer 270

Perception of the norms, values, attitudes, and expectations of others in general

Question 271

If Mateo feels happy because he thinks his classmates will approve of his new shoes, which phase of the looking-glass self is Mateo in?

Answer 271

Third

Question 272

phases of the looking-glass self

Answer 272

The concept of the “looking-glass self” was developed by sociologist Charles Horton Cooley and describes how our self-concept and identity are shaped by our interactions with others. It involves three main phases:

Imagining How We Appear to Others: In this phase, we imagine how we appear to others in social situations. We often consider how others might perceive our behavior, appearance, or actions.
Imagining Others’ Judgment of Our Appearance: Once we have imagined how we appear to others, we then imagine how others judge that appearance. This involves considering what others think about us based on the image we project.
Developing Self-Feeling Based on Others’ Perceptions: Finally, we develop our self-feeling based on our perception of others’ judgments. This means that our self-esteem and self-worth are influenced by how we believe others perceive us. If we perceive others as approving or positive, our self-esteem might increase; if we perceive disapproval or negativity, it might decrease.
These phases illustrate how social interactions and feedback from others play a crucial role in shaping our self-concept and identity over time.

Question 273

Which concept reflects sociological ways of thinking about the development of self?

Answer 273

The looking-glass self

Question 274

What is a secondary group?

Answer 274

A group that is created through similar interests, activities, or professions

Question 275

A student is well prepared for a class assignment, and she feels confident she knows the correct answers to the questions the teacher will ask during a group discussion. However, the student is reluctant to raise her hand to answer the questions to avoid making her classmates look bad.

Which term explains the student’s behavior within the social structure of the group?

Answer 275

Role strain

Question 276

What is an example of a category?

Answer 276

Fans gathered to watch a concert

Members of the same softball team
_

-People who wear glasses-
_

Participants in a race

Question 277

Which term describes a crowd of people who happen to be in the same place at the same time?

Answer 277

Aggregate

Question 278

Which social theorist was the first to analyze bureaucracies as powerful forms of social organization that are concerned with the “bottom line?”

Answer 278

Max Weber

Question 279

Karl Marx

Answer 279

Karl Marx was a prominent figure in sociology and a key thinker in the realm of social theory. His work focused on understanding and critiquing the capitalist economic system and its effects on society. Here are some key aspects of Marx’s contributions to sociology:

Critique of Capitalism: Marx analyzed capitalism as a system where economic relationships between classes (capitalists who own the means of production and workers who sell their labor) lead to exploitation and inequality.
Class Conflict: Marx emphasized the central role of class struggle in driving historical change. He argued that history is shaped by conflicts between social classes over control of economic resources and power.
Materialist View of History: Marx proposed a materialist interpretation of history, known as historical materialism. He argued that the development of human societies is driven by changes in economic systems and the material conditions of production.
Alienation: Marx discussed how capitalist production alienates workers from the products they produce, from the process of production itself, from their own human potential, and from each other.
Theory of Surplus Value: Marx developed the concept of surplus value, which refers to the difference between the value of a worker’s labor and the wages paid to the worker. He argued that capitalists extract surplus value from workers through the exploitation of labor.
Revolutionary Change: Marx believed that capitalism would ultimately give way to socialism or communism through a revolutionary process led by the working class (proletariat), where private ownership of the means of production would be replaced by collective ownership and control.
Marx’s ideas continue to influence sociological thought, particularly in discussions on social class, inequality, economic systems, and the dynamics of social change. His critical perspective on capitalism and advocacy for social justice have left a lasting legacy in sociology and beyond.

Question 280

Robert Michels

Answer 280

The “Iron Law of Oligarchy,” proposed by Robert Michels, suggests that all organizations, including democratic ones, tend to develop oligarchic tendencies over time. Oligarchy refers to a system where power and decision-making authority are concentrated in the hands of a small group of leaders or elites, rather than being distributed equally among all members.

Question 281

George Ritzer

Answer 281

is a sociologist known for ideas like “McDonaldization,” which shows how fast food principles (like efficiency and predictability) influence many aspects of society. He also explores globalization, how consumers are now involved in creating products (like on social media), and critiques modern culture, like how technology affects our lives. His work helps us understand how society changes and how global trends impact our daily lives.

Question 282

How does group size affect group dynamics?

Answer 282

The larger the group, the more stable it is.

Question 283

According to sociologist George Simmel, what happens to a small group’s dynamics and interactions as it grows larger?

Answer 283

It becomes more stable, but its intimacy decreases.

Question 284

How does Strain Theory explain deviance?

Answer 284

People are not always willing and/or able to achieve cultural goals.

Question 285

What is the position of the conflict perspective regarding deviance?

Answer 285

Deviant behavior is defined by those with power.

Question 286

What did Émile Durkheim argue is the role of deviance in society?

Answer 286

It reinforces cultural values and norms.

Question 287

According to sociologist George Simmel, what happens to a small group’s dynamics and interactions as it grows larger?

Answer 287

It becomes more stable, but its intimacy decreases.

Question 288

The…… ………. is a concept from sociologist George Herbert Mead. It refers to the internalized sense of the overall attitudes, expectations, and norms of society or a social group that individuals use to guide their behavior.

In simpler terms, it represents how people imagine society’s perspective when evaluating their actions, helping them understand how they fit into the broader social context. It plays a key role in developing a person’s self-awareness and ability to interact in social situations.

Answer 288

generalized other

Question 289

Gemeinschaft

Answer 289

“Gemeinschaft” in sociology refers to traditional, close-knit communities characterized by strong personal bonds and shared values. It contrasts with “Gesellschaft,” which describes modern, urban societies where relationships are more impersonal and structured by formal institutions.

Question 290

“Dramaturgy

Answer 290

Dramaturgy” in sociology, coined by Erving Goffman, refers to the study of social interaction as if it were a theatrical performance. It emphasizes how individuals present themselves to others, manage impressions, and use various “scripts” to navigate social situations, akin to actors performing roles on a stage.

Question 291

How does Strain Theory explain deviance?

Answer 291

People are not always willing and/or able to achieve cultural goals

Question 292

What is the position of the conflict perspective regarding deviance?

Answer 292

Deviant behavior is defined by those with power.

Question 293

What did Émile Durkheim argue is the role of deviance in society?

Answer 293

It reinforces cultural values and norms

Question 294

Which perspective argues that prison cements a “criminal” identity, making it more likely a person will continue to engage in criminal behavior when released?

Answer 294

Symbolic interactionism

Question 295

How does functionalism view prison?

Answer 295

Prisons help prevent crime by providing a negative sanction.

Question 296

What type of crime is committed by people of high social status who are motivated by financial gain?

Answer 296

White-collar crime

Question 297

What is an example of institutional discrimination in everyday life?

Answer 297

The systematic denial of home loans based on race.

Question 298

How does the conflict perspective explain racial prejudice?

Answer 298

Racial prejudice stems from different racial groups competing for scarce resources.

Question 299

What is the difference between race and ethnicity?

Answer 299

Race is a social category based on a person’s physical traits; ethnicity comes from a shared sense of cultural, ancestral, and national identity.

Question 300

Which term is used to describe a set of genes that creates a certain physical appearance?

Answer 300

Phenotype

Question 301

Eugenics

Answer 301

Eugenics is a controversial social philosophy or movement that advocates for improving the genetic quality of the human population through selective breeding or other interventions. Historically, it has been associated with efforts to promote traits deemed desirable while discouraging those considered undesirable, often based on misguided or discriminatory beliefs about race, ethnicity, disability, or other characteristics. Eugenics has been widely discredited due to its unethical and discriminatory practices, including forced sterilizations and policies that targeted marginalized groups.

Question 302

Which pattern of group interaction involves ethnic groups gradually giving up their distinctive culture and traditions to adopt the patterns of the dominant culture?

Answer 302

Assimilation

Question 303

Pluralism

Answer 303

In sociology, pluralism refers to a theoretical perspective that emphasizes diversity, coexistence, and the presence of multiple groups and cultures within a society. Pluralism recognizes and respects the existence of different beliefs, values, and lifestyles among various social groups. It suggests that societies are composed of diverse elements that contribute to social cohesion through mutual tolerance and respect, rather than assimilation or domination by a single group or ideology.

Question 304

Which condition in marriages do sociologists view as being shaped by culturally defined gender roles?

Answer 304

Who holds decision-making power

Question 305

Which term refers to the difference between what women make on average and what men make on average over their lifetimes?

Answer 305

Gender wage gap

Question 306

Glass escalator

Answer 306

The “glass escalator” is a phenomenon in which men in predominantly female-dominated professions, such as nursing or teaching, often experience faster career advancement compared to their female counterparts. This advancement is attributed to factors like gender stereotypes, where men are seen as more competent or suited for leadership roles even in traditionally female fields. The term highlights how gender norms can create advantages for men in certain professional environments.

Question 307

Gender typing

Answer 307

Gender typing refers to the process by which societal expectations, norms, and roles are assigned to individuals based on their perceived or assigned gender. This process influences how people are expected to behave, the roles they are encouraged to fulfill, and the activities or occupations they are deemed suitable for, based on traditional societal beliefs about masculinity and femininity.

Question 308

Glass ceiling

Answer 308

The “glass ceiling” is an invisible barrier that prevents women and minorities from advancing to higher levels in organizations, especially in the workplace. It refers to systemic barriers such as discrimination and stereotypes that hinder their career progression despite their qualifications and achievements.

Question 309

Which of the following is typically a female-dominated profession?

Answer 309

Middle school teacher

Question 310

How do the rates of suicide attempts compare between lesbian, bisexual, or gay youth and heterosexual youth?

Answer 310

Lesbian, bisexual, or gay youth are twice as likely to attempt suicide.

Question 311

Which type of harassment occurs when a person in authority demands sexual favors of a subordinate as a condition of getting or keeping a job benefit?

Answer 311

Quid pro quo

Question 312

According to Karl Marx, which of the following factors determines social class?

Answer 312

Peoples’ relationship to the means of production

Question 313

What do sociologists focus on as an explanation for why people are poor?

Answer 313

Social structure

Question 314

Why does the conflict perspective argue that social stratification is universal?

Answer 314

The powerful use society’s resources to their benefit and to oppress others.

Question 315

Which problem associated with urban expansion is responsible for driving up the prices of homeownership and rent in poor areas, ultimately forcing the original impoverished group out?

Answer 315

Gentrification

Question 316

Isolationism

Answer 316

Isolationism is a foreign policy approach where a country chooses to limit its involvement in international affairs and interactions with other nations. This can involve avoiding alliances, trade agreements, or military interventions, focusing instead on domestic issues and maintaining independence from global influences.

Question 317

Deindustrialization

Answer 317

Deindustrialization refers to the decline or reduction in the industrial sector’s importance or size within an economy. This decline typically involves a decrease in manufacturing activities, often leading to job losses, economic restructuring, and a shift towards service-based industries.

Question 318

According to conflict theorist Immanuel Wallerstein, which category do the poorest countries, concentrated in Africa, Central America, and central Asia belong to?

Answer 318

Periphery countries

Question 319

Semi-periphery countries

Answer 319

Semi-periphery countries are in the middle—they’re not as rich and powerful as the top-tier countries (the core), but they’re also not as poor and dependent as the lowest-tier countries (the periphery). They have some industry and better living conditions than poorer countries, but they still rely on richer countries and can struggle with economic ups and downs.

Question 320

Core countries

Answer 320

rich and powerful
the top-tier countries

Question 321

What have sociologists observed about cohabitation in the U.S. since 1960?

Answer 321

Rates of cohabitation have rapidly increased.

Question 322

Today’s average first-time bride and groom in the United States are older than at any other time in history. What have sociologists discovered is the primary reason for this increased average age at marriage?

Answer 322

More couples are cohabiting before getting married.

Question 323

Which theoretical perspective holds that marriage is a tool for societal survival?

Answer 323

Functionalist

Question 324

Which sociological perspective explains the meanings that men and women attach to marriage, housework, and childcare?

Answer 324

Symbolic interactionist

Question 325

According to Max Weber, what established the relationship between Protestantism and capitalism?

Answer 325

A religious approach to life that valued frugality and investment

Question 326

Which perspective focuses on how standardized tests have a cultural bias that favor white, middle class students?

Answer 326

Conflict

Question 327

Cameron attends an inner city school where almost 90% of the students receive free lunches, and the graduation rate is just 50%.

Which sociological perspective helps explain this school’s low graduation rate?

Answer 327

Conflict

Question 328

What concept does the role of the U.S. educational system have in teaching mainstream cultural norms and traditions to immigrant populations demonstrate, according to a functionalist perspective?

Answer 328

Social integration

Question 329

A person was born into a working poor family.

What is true in terms of health outcomes in this scenario?

Answer 329

This person will struggle with health issues due to the persistent stresses of poverty.

Question 330

How do most Americans get their healthcare?

Answer 330

Through their employer

Question 331

Which healthcare model is closest to the American system?

Answer 331

Bismarck

Question 332

Which race has the highest infant mortality rate in the United States?

Answer 332

African American

Question 333

What is an example of a mass?

Answer 333

People who drive the same type of vehicle

NOT:
A group of employees gathered for a strike
People watching a new movie at a theatre
Fans watching a football game at a stadium

Question 334

What is an example of an alternative social movement?

Answer 334

Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD)

Question 335

Protestant Reformation
example

Answer 335

In sociology, the Protestant Reformation is studied as a significant historical event that illustrates how religious beliefs and institutions can influence broader social change. It serves as a case study for understanding:

Social Change and Conflict: The Reformation exemplifies how religious dissent and dissatisfaction with institutional practices can lead to social movements and challenges to authority.
Cultural Transformation: Sociologists examine how the Reformation impacted cultural practices, values, and the emergence of new forms of religious expression and governance.
Political and Institutional Dynamics: It provides insights into how changes within religious institutions can intersect with political structures and influence governance and societal norms.
Secularization and Individualism: The Reformation’s aftermath contributed to processes of secularization and the rise of individualism, influencing modern Western societies.

Question 336

Civil rights movement
example

Answer 336

In sociology, the Civil Rights Movement is studied as a pivotal social movement in the United States that aimed to achieve equal rights and opportunities for African Americans. It is analyzed through the lens of collective action theory, examining how marginalized groups organize, mobilize, and challenge existing social norms, laws, and structures to achieve social change. Sociologists study the strategies and tactics employed, such as nonviolent resistance, grassroots organizing, legal challenges, and media activism, as well as the movement’s impact on laws, policies, and broader societal attitudes towards race and equality.

Question 337

According to the new social movement theory, what shift in social movements has occurred in Western countries since the 1960s?

Answer 337

They now focus on lifestyle and political concerns.

Question 338

The “Iron Law of Oligarchy,”

Answer 338

proposed by Robert Michels, suggests that all organizations, including democratic ones, tend to develop oligarchic tendencies over time. Oligarchy refers to a system where power and decision-making authority are concentrated in the hands of a small group of leaders or elites, rather than being distributed equally among all members.

Question 339

Auguste Comte

Answer 339

Auguste Comte (1798-1857) was a French philosopher and sociologist known for founding sociology and developing positivism. He emphasized using scientific methods to study society and proposed a theory of three historical stages: theological, metaphysical, and positive (scientific). Comte’s ideas laid the groundwork for sociology as a discipline focused on empirical research and understanding social laws through systematic observation.

Question 340

Emile Durkheim

Answer 340

Social Facts: Durkheim emphasized the importance of studying “social facts,” which are external to individuals and exert social control over their behavior. These include norms, values, institutions, and customs that shape collective life.

Division of Labor: Durkheim explored how the division of labor in society affects social cohesion and solidarity. He distinguished between mechanical solidarity (based on similarity and shared traditions) and organic solidarity (based on interdependence and specialization).

Collective Consciousness: Durkheim introduced the concept of “collective consciousness,” referring to the shared beliefs, values, and moral attitudes that bind individuals together in a society. It reflects the cohesion and integration of social groups.

Suicide: Durkheim conducted a groundbreaking study on suicide, examining how social factors such as social integration and regulation influence rates of suicide. He argued that suicide rates are influenced by the degree of social cohesion and regulation in a society.
“Suicide rates were higher in areas where an individual’s ties to their group were disrupted or distorted.”

Functionalism: Durkheim is considered one of the founders of functionalist theory, which views society as a system of interrelated parts that function together to maintain stability and order. He emphasized the role of social institutions in maintaining social equilibrium.

Question 341

Functional analysis

Answer 341

Functional analysis in sociology is an approach that views society as a system made up of different parts, like family, education, and government, that work together to keep everything stable and running smoothly. It looks at how each part contributes to the overall functioning and harmony of society.

Question 342

Macrosociology

Answer 342

Macrosociology is the study of large-scale social structures and processes in society. It looks at big-picture issues like institutions (e.g., government, education), social systems, and global trends to understand how they shape and influence entire populations.

Example: Examining how the education system affects social inequality is a macrosociological approach

Question 343

Laud Humphreys

Answer 343

Laud Humphreys was a sociologist known for his “Tearoom Trade” study, which examined social interactions between men in public restrooms. In this research, Humphreys observed men engaging in anonymous sexual activities in these settings without their knowledge. He analyzed how these interactions were organized, the social norms involved, and the reasons why men chose to meet in such private spaces. The study highlighted issues of privacy, secrecy, and the complexities of social behavior in public areas. However, it was also controversial because Humphreys did not obtain informed consent from the participants, raising important ethical questions in sociological research.

Question 344

What is a hypothesis?

Answer 344

is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more concepts.
A hypothesis is the tentative answer to a question being asked, which can be tested through research.

Question 345

Which of the following is not a major sociological perspective?

Answer 345

a) conflict perspective
b) drive perspective
c) functionalism
d) symbolic interactionism

Question 346

Who introduced the idea of double consciousness?

Answer 346

W.E.B. DuBois

Question 347

What is the research method called when a person observes and records in-depth detailed information about a group of people?

Answer 347

ethnography

Question 348

Functionalist perspective

Answer 348

Two Types of Functions
Merton further distinguished between manifest functions and latent functions

Manifest functions: stated, intended consequences of an institution, action, or social group
Latent functions: unconscious or unrecognized consequences of the same institution, action, or social group Robert Merton (1910–2003) contributed further to the understanding of functionalism. He used the term function* to describe the beneficial consequences of actions in society. In contrast, dysfunction* refers to the harmful consequences of actions that undermine a system’s balance.

Reasoned about manifest and latent functions for a second
Manifest Functions are the intended, deliberate, or obvious purposes of a social institution, practice, or action.
Latent Functions are the unintended, often unrecognized or hidden consequences of the same.

Below are a few concise examples:

1. Schooling
   Manifest Function:
   To educate students and provide them with academic qualifications.
   Latent Function:
   Schools also serve as a place for social networking and developing peer relationships, influencing social norms and future job prospects.
2. Religious Gatherings
   Manifest Function:
   To perform rituals and express shared beliefs or worship together.
   Latent Function:
   They also facilitate community bonding and can be a source of social support or networking (e.g., finding job leads through connections made at religious services).
3. A Corporate Conference
   Manifest Function:
   To share industry knowledge, train employees, and showcase new products or services.
   Latent Function:
   Creates opportunities for informal networking that can lead to unexpected partnerships or friendships.
4. Public Transportation
   Manifest Function:
   Provides an affordable way for the public to travel and commute.
   Latent Function:
   Passengers from diverse backgrounds encounter each other, which can build social tolerance or spark new personal connections.
   Key Insight:

Manifest functions are straightforward and explicitly recognized.
Latent functions often emerge indirectly and can have significant social impacts without being part of the original plan.

Question 349

Conflict Perspective

Answer 349

Karl Marx focused on the conflict between classes within society, and he is also the founder of the conflict perspective.

Modern conflict theorists have moved beyond Marx’s focus on the bourgeoisie and the proletariat to study many other factors that divide people in society, such as race, gender, and sexual orientation. Like Marx, however, they believe social behavior is understood best in terms of the tension among competing groups.

Question 350

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

Answer 350

George Herbert Mead

Social interactions* are exchanges among people that are meaningful: they include greeting a family member in the morning, shaking hands when you meet someone for the first time, and telling a joke. Any kind of communication between people, including spoken language, written language, body language, or images, is a social interaction.

Where functionalists focus on the stability of society and conflict theorists focus on social change, symbolic interactionists work at the micro-level, studying the stability and change tied to our everyday social interactions.

Question 351

Applied sociology

Answer 351

is the use of the discipline with the intent of yielding practical applications to solve the problems we face. Usually we do this by better understanding a social issue, such as criminal activity in a certain area, illegal drug use among a population, or access to affordable housing.

Question 352

Innovation

Answer 352

is rejecting the socially-sanctioned means (getting a job) but accepting the socially-sanctioned ends (obtaining money).

Question 353

crime and deviance

Answer 353

Functionalists believe that deviance helps clarify the social boundaries, to teach the rest of us how not to behave.

Conflict theorists focus on how crime and punishment are used as a tool by dominant social groups to reinforce their power.

Symbolic interactionists are interested in how deviant behavior becomes a social identity, marking a person more generally.

Question 354

Categories

Answer 354

consist of a number of people with something in common. Think of all of the students at your institution (including yourself) who live in your state. But again, beyond that, there is no social connection. This example of a category contains a number of people (perhaps even a large number), and it possesses at least two commonalities (students and state of residence).