Cognitive Psychology

Question 1

a technique used by Wilhelm Wundt (School of Thought
Structuralism) that involved trained participants describing their experiences and thought processes in response to stimuli

Answer 1

analytic introspection

Question 2

a field of study aiming to make machines behave in ways that would be considered intelligent if a human were behaving that way, as defined by John McCarthy during the Dartmouth conference

Answer 2

artificial intelligence

Question 3

an approach to psychology founded by John Watson that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and rejects introspection and the investigation of unobservable mental processes

Answer 3

behaviorism:

Question 4

a form of learning introduced by Ivan Pavlov and associated with John Watson, wherein a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, resulting in a learned response

Answer 4

classical conditioning

Question 5

all mental abilities, including perceiving, learning, remembering, thinking, reasoning, and understanding

Answer 5

cognition

Question 6

the study of mental processes, encompassing characteristics and properties of the mind and how it operates

Answer 6

cognitive psychology

Question 7

the approach of focusing on understanding mental processes and the operation of the mind, which emerged during the cognitive revolution

Answer 7

cognitive paradigm

Question 8

a shift in psychology from behaviorism to a focus on understanding mental processes, which occurred during the 1950s and was marked by events such as conferences on artificial intelligence and information theory

Answer 8

cognitive revolution

Question 9

the mental process involved in making choices, as inferred from behavior in Donders’ experiment

Answer 9

decision-making process

Question 10

filter model of attention

Answer 10

a flow chart proposed by Donald Broadbent in the 1950s that depicts the operation of the mind in terms of processing stages, particularly in directing attention to stimuli in the environment

Question 11

a brain imaging technique introduced in 1990 that allows the observation of activated areas in the human brain during cognitive activity without radioactive tracers

Answer 11

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

Question 12

the complex cognitive functions, such as thinking, problem-solving, and long-term remembering, considered in the study of cognitive psychology

Answer 12

higher mental processes

Question 13

a form of learning introduced by B. F. Skinner that focuses on how behavior is strengthened by the presentation of positive reinforcers or the withdrawal of negative reinforcers

Answer 13

operant conditioning

Question 14

the association between a stimulus and the resulting behavior, a central focus of behaviorism

Answer 14

stimulus–response relationships

Question 15

a significant shift in scientific thinking from one paradigm to another, marked by changes in dominant ideas and approaches

Answer 15

scientific revolution

Question 16

a stage in Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model of memory that holds incoming information for a fraction of a second

Answer 16

sensory memory

Question 17

a stage in Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model of memory with limited capacity, holding information for seconds

Answer 17

short-term memory

Question 18

Two key definitions of the mind

Answer 18

There are two main ways to define the mind:

1.	The mind as the creator and controller of mental functions: This means the mind is responsible for creating thoughts, feelings, memories, and actions. It’s like the control center that manages everything we think and do.

2.	The mind as a system that creates representations to achieve goals: This means the mind helps us form mental images or ideas (representations) to understand the world and solve problems. It acts like a tool we use to figure things out and reach our goals, using these mental pictures or concepts.

In short, one definition focuses on the mind controlling what we think and feel, while the other emphasizes how it helps us solve problems by creating mental pictures or ideas.

one focusing on its creation and control of mental functions, and the other portraying it as a system creating representations to achieve goals.

Question 19

what occurred with the rise of behaviorism?

Answer 19

A shift away from studying the mind, initiated by John Watson, emphasizing observable behavior over internal mental processes.

Question 20

The cognitive revolution in the 1950s marked a paradigm shift

Answer 20

from behaviorism to the cognitive approach, influenced by developments such as the introduction of digital computers.

Question 21

The evolution of cognitive psychology continued beyond the 1950s with advancements like:

Answer 21

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s memory model,
Tulving’s subdivision of long-term memory, and the impact of brain imaging, such as fMRI.

Question 22

Contemporary cognitive psychology …

Answer 22

It looks at how thinking works in everyday life, recognizes the importance of knowledge, and uses advanced methods, showing that it’s a complex and constantly changing field.

explores real-world cognition, acknowledges the role of knowledge, and employs sophisticated methodologies, reflecting a multifaceted and dynamic field

Question 23

Which term refers to Ebbinghaus’s finding that relearning lists of syllables takes less time than the original session?

Answer 23

Savings curve

Ebbinghaus studied the nature of memory and forgetting by measuring the amount of time it took to learn and relearn a list of syllables.

Question 24

What did Watson suggest that psychologists study when using a stimulus–response approach?

Answer 24

Behavior

John Watson considered analytic introspection an inadequate form of study and instead promoted studying directly observable behavior.

Question 25

Which experimental framework was inspired by artificial intelligence and sought to study mental processes either in stages or as sequential mental operations?

Answer 25

Information processing

Question 26

Which model of memory includes three stages: sensory store, short-term memory, and long-term memory?

Answer 26

Atkinson–Shiffrin model of memory

Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed a memory processing model with three stages: incoming information enters a sensory memory store, moves into short-term memory, and is then transferred to a long-term memory store.

Question 27

universal developmental events, suh as puberty

Answer 27

biological milestones

Question 28

all mental abilities, including perceiving, learning, remembering, thinking, reasoning, and understanding

Answer 28

cognition

Question 29

development of thinking and reasoning abilities

Answer 29

cognitive development

Question 30

normative events marking stages in development

Answer 30

developmental milestones

Question 31

information processing abilities, such as logical reasoning, spatial ability, and reaction time

Answer 31

fluid intelligence

Question 32

genetic makeup influencing traits

Answer 32

genotype

Question 33

the improvement of an organism’s response to the environment through the acquisition of new information

Answer 33

learning

Question 34

the study of the capacity and fragility of human memory, focusing on acquisition, storage, and retrieval

Answer 34

memory

Question 35

the brain’s capacity to reorganize and adapt

Answer 35

neuroplasticity

Question 36

study of age-related averages for developmental milestones

Answer 36

normative approach

Question 37

object permanence

Answer 37

understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight

Question 38

development related to emotions, personality, and social relationships

Answer 38

psychosocial development

Question 39

what examines the Normative Approach?

Answer 39

examines ages for developmental milestones, continuous versus discontinuous nature of development, and nature vs nurture.

The normative approach is a method used in developmental psychology to understand typical (or “normal”) patterns of behavior, growth, and development. This approach involves studying large groups of people within a specific age range to establish averages, milestones, or norms, which can then serve as benchmarks for comparing individual development.

Key aspects of the normative approach:

Establishing Developmental Milestones: Researchers observe behaviors, abilities, or physical characteristics that most children exhibit at particular ages. For example, they might determine that most children begin walking around 12 months and talking around 18 months.
Comparing Individual Progress: By establishing these norms, the normative approach helps parents, educators, and healthcare providers assess whether a child is developing typically. If a child deviates significantly from these norms, it may suggest the need for additional support or evaluation.
Guiding Expectations: Norms help set realistic expectations for development across various stages of life, not just childhood, such as cognitive or physical abilities during adolescence or typical physical changes in aging.
The normative approach is foundational in developmental psychology because it provides a baseline for understanding typical development while acknowledging individual variations.

Question 40

explain the continuous versus discontinuous nature of development

Answer 40

1. Continuous Development: This view suggests that development is a smooth, gradual process. According to this perspective, changes happen incrementally over time, like adding layers of skills or abilities bit by bit. It implies that development is quantitative, meaning people gradually acquire more of the same type of abilities (e.g., growing taller, becoming more knowledgeable). An example of continuous development could be language acquisition, where vocabulary and understanding grow steadily over time.
   
   2. Discontinuous Development: In contrast, this perspective argues that development happens in distinct stages or steps, each one bringing qualitatively different abilities or behaviors. Development is seen as a series of sudden changes or shifts that lead to new ways of thinking or behaving. An example of discontinuous development is Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, which describes specific stages (e.g., moving from concrete operational thinking to formal operational thinking), with new cognitive abilities emerging at each stage.

In summary:

•	Continuous: Development is gradual and cumulative (quantitative changes).
•	Discontinuous: Development involves distinct stages with major, qualitative shifts in abilities.

Question 41

explain the relationship between nature and nurture

Question 42

Jean Piaget’s model outlines four stages:

Answer 42

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages.

Critics propose alternative views such as postformal thinking, suggesting ongoing cognitive development beyond the formal operational stage.

Question 43

Contrary to traditional views, infants have been shown….

Answer 43

to have remarkable learning abilities, early theory-of-mind capabilities, and a strategy of extended childhood for knowledge acquisition. This suggests a more expansive and exploratory form of attention in infants and encourages adults to embrace open-mindedness and creativity by occasionally thinking more like children.

Question 44

Cognitive psychology explores

Answer 44

human cognition, encompassing mental processes like perception, learning, memory, thinking, reasoning, and understanding.

Question 45

There are common perceptions of cognitive decline related to aging

Answer 45

While practical thought skills often improve with age, it is important to maintain cognitive health through the aging process.

Question 46

In which of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development do children develop abstract thinking?

Answer 46

Formal operational

Children in the formal operational stage can deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations.

Question 47

Preoperational stage of cognitive development (Piaget)

Answer 47

In this stage, children can use words and images to represent things but lack logical reasoning.

Question 48

Sensorimotor stage of cognitive development (Piaget)

Answer 48

During this stage, children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior.

Question 49

Concrete operational stage of cognitive development (Piaget)

Answer 49

n this stage, children can think logically about real (concrete) events.

Question 50

What did Chomsky discover about the cognitive development of language in babies and young children?

Answer 50

Language is acquired through a natural propensity for learning language.

Chomsky’s theory is based on the idea that there are already underlying structures in the brain ready to be used for language acquisition from infancy and throughout the lifespan.

Question 51

Theory of mind (TOM)

Answer 51

is the ability to understand what others think, feel, or believe.

Question 52

What is the purpose of crystallized intelligence with regard to cognition?

Answer 52

For gaining knowledge

Knowledge is information learned throughout the lifespan that is then applied in the decision-making process.

Question 53

Memory

Answer 53

is the natural cognitive ability to encode, store, and retrieve information.

Question 54

Processing information

Answer 54

is a natural cognitive ability to process current information from both the external and internal human environment.

Question 55

Reasoning

Answer 55

is a cognitive process for comparing multiple options and choosing the best option available.

Reasoning is the cognitive ability to use deductive logic to understand multiple factors and their purpose in a given situation.

Question 56

Which sub-domain of cognitive psychology focuses on the conditions under which new information is acquired?

Answer 56

Learning

Learning is the ability to acquire new information from one’s environment and store it in memory.

Question 57

Attention

Answer 57

is the cognitive ability to focus on specific information.

Question 58

Perception

Answer 58

is the cognitive ability to interpret sensory information based on prior knowledge.

Question 59

responsible for transmitting neural information and for communication between neurons. — —typically travel down a neuron’s axon.

Answer 59

action potential

Question 60

in the frontal lobe, identified as specialized for language production

Answer 60

Broca’s area

Question 61

a layer of tissue about 3 mm thick covering the brain, responsible for many cognitive functions

Answer 61

cerebral cortex

Question 62

the wiring diagram of neurons in the brain

A — is like a detailed map of how all the brain’s neurons (nerve cells) are connected to each other. Imagine the brain as a giant city with billions of roads, where each road represents a connection between brain cells. The — shows how these “roads” link up to allow different parts of the brain to communicate, share information, and work together. It’s essential for everything we do, from thinking and remembering to moving and feeling emotions.

Understanding the —- helps scientists learn more about how the brain functions and what happens when it doesn’t work properly, like in diseases such as Alzheimer’s or depression.

Answer 62

connectome

Question 63

default mode network (DMN)

Answer 63

brain structures that respond when a person is not involved in specific tasks. The —- is associated with mind wandering and becomes active during rest

Question 64

distributed processing

Answer 64

different areas of the brain are involved in a particular type of cognition and are interconnected, allowing communication between them

Question 65

distributed representation

Answer 65

cognitions activate several areas of the brain, which is evident in responses to faces, memories, and language processing

Question 66

a phenomenon where the structure of the brain is changed by experience, leading to alterations in neural connections

Answer 66

experience-dependent plasticity

Question 67

a progression from lower to higher areas of the brain, where neurons at higher levels respond to more complex stimulia progression from lower to higher areas of the brain, where neurons at higher levels respond to more complex stimuli

Answer 67

hierarchical processing

Question 68

localization of function

Answer 68

specific areas of the brain serve specific functions

Question 69

a chemical released at the synapse of a neuron, facilitating the transmission of signals across the gap to another neuron

Answer 69

neurotransmitter

Question 70

What is the role of dendrites in the brain?

Answer 70

Dendrites branch out from the cell body to receive signals from other neurons.

Question 71

How does a neuron transmit a signal after a neural impulse travels the length of the axon?

Answer 71

By releasing a neurotransmitter

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that are released into the synaptic gap.

Question 72

If brain damage occurs in the temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex, how will cognitive ability suffer?

Answer 72

The damage will affect the ability to comprehend language.

Wernicke’s aphasia occurs after damage to an area within the temporal lobe; patients can produce speech that is both fluent and grammatically correct but tends to be incoherent.

Question 73

Wernicke’s aphasia

Answer 73

occurs after damage to an area within the temporal lobe; patients can produce speech that is both fluent and grammatically correct but tends to be incoherent.

Question 74

When is structural connectivity present in the brain?

Answer 74

When communication between two areas occurs by neural pathways

Structural connectivity is created by neural pathways that connect different brain areas.

Question 75

Functional connectivity is a…

Answer 75

measure of correlation between two or more areas of the brain responding at the same time.

Question 76

A neural network describes a…

Answer 76

network of connections, meaning more than two, and forming a network structure in the human brain.

Question 77

A neural pathway…

Answer 77

connects two separate or distinct areas of the brain.

Question 78

a technique that measures brain activity by capturing images of the brain, often using methods such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).

Answer 78

brain imaging

Question 79

cases in which there is a separation or difference between two cognitive functions, such as imagery and perception.

Answer 79

dissociations

Question 80

the front part of the brain, which is involved in various cognitive functions, including perception and imagery.

Answer 80

frontal lobe

Question 81

mental representation of visual or sensory experiences; a central element in the cognitive revolution.

Answer 81

imagery

Question 82

a discussion arising from Wundt’s proposal linking imagery and thinking, debating whether thought can occur without mental images.

Answer 82

imageless thought debate

Question 83

method of loci

Answer 83

using familiar spatial layouts (e.g., house or campus) to remember events. Pick five to seven things, create an image for each, and place them at locations. Follow a specific order or path to encounter images in the correct sequence.

Question 84

a method employed by Paivio,

Answer 84

paired-associate learning

Question 85

pegword technique

Answer 85

a technique Involving imagery and associating items with concrete words. Create a list of nouns rhyming with numbers, forming a retrieval cue.

Question 86

the process of interpreting and understanding sensory information from the environment.

Answer 86

perception

Question 87

propositional representations

Answer 87

We can use symbols or images to show how things are connected, without needing to show their real-life positions. Instead of worrying about where things are, we focus on how they relate to each other. For example, a chart might use lines or shapes to represent connections, even if they don’t match actual distances or locations, unlike a map that shows real places.

Question 88

The idea that there is a spatial relationship between imagery and perception, supported by experiments involving mental scanning.

The definition focuses on the connection between mental imagery (what we imagine in our minds) and perception (what we see or sense in the real world). It highlights the idea that when we think about or visualize something in our minds, it often maintains a spatial relationship similar to what we would perceive in reality, as shown by experiments where people mentally “scan” images or spaces.

applies to how we visualize things mentally, not just physical spaces. how our mental imagery relates to perception in a spatial way.

Answer 88

spatial correspondence

Question 89

The system responsible for temporarily holding and manipulating information for cognitive tasks.

Answer 89

working memory:

Question 90

Wilhelm Wundt’s proposition of…

Answer 90

images as fundamental elements in consciousness initiated the history of imagery. STRUCTURALISM

The imageless thought debate emerged, challenging the necessity of images for thinking

Question 91

Shepard and Metzler’s findings suggested

Answer 91

spatial representation in both mental and perceptual images.

Shepard and Metzler’s study showed that when people mentally rotate objects in their minds, it takes longer the more the objects are rotated, just like it would in real life. This suggests that mental images are spatially represented in a similar way to how we perceive real objects. So, both mental and perceptual images share the same kind of spatial thinking.

Question 92

How does mental imagery improve memory according to Paivio’s research?

Answer 92

By pairing words that are concrete nouns

Paivio showed that concrete nouns, like truck or tree, are easier to remember because they can be visually imagined.

Question 93

In a spatial representation..

Answer 93

different parts of an image can be described as corresponding to specific locations in space.

This idea means that when you imagine an image, different parts of that image are mentally placed in specific positions, just like they would be in the real world. For example, if you picture a house, you might imagine the roof at the top, the door in the middle, and the windows on the sides. Each part of the image corresponds to a particular location in space within your mind, similar to how they would be arranged in physical reality. This shows that our mental images have a spatial structure, just like real objects.

Question 93

How does propositional representation describe the relationship between objects in mental imagery?

Answer 93

It emphasizes the descriptive characteristics of an image.

Propositions are used to represent any kind relationship and are a form of mental representation that consists of neither words nor images.

Propositional representation in logic involves representing statements or propositions as symbols or variables that can either be true or false. Here’s a basic example:

1.	Natural Language Statements:
•	“If it is raining, then the ground is wet.”
•	“It is raining.”
2.	Propositional Representation:
•	Let  represent “It is raining.”
•	Let  represent “The ground is wet.”
3.	Logical Expression:
•	The first statement can be represented as  (If , then ).
•	The second statement is simply  (It is raining).
4.	Logical Conclusion:
•	If both statements are true, then by modus ponens (a rule of inference), we can conclude : “The ground is wet.”

This example shows how natural language statements are converted into symbolic form, allowing for logical reasoning and inference.

Question 94

Daniel tells a story of a visit to a large waterfall and remembers that the light refracted off of the spray of the water to create rainbows.
How does Daniel re-experience this visit?

Answer 94

By using visual imagery to imagine the falls.

Visual imagery is used to recall a visual memory and experience it again.

Question 95

Mental scanning

Answer 95

is a task in which participants create mental images and then scan them in their minds, suggesting a spatial correspondence between imagery and perception.

Question 96

How is the method of loci used to improve memory?

Answer 96

By visualizing items in different spatial locations

Question 97

the pegword technique

Answer 97

Associating images with words

Question 98

An —- inference happens when we read or listen to something and figure out who or what a pronoun or reference word is talking about. For example, if you read “Ana was tired. She went to bed early,” you understand that “she” refers to Ana. Your brain makes the connection between the pronoun and the earlier noun, filling in the details. This is called ana… inference—it helps us keep track of who or what is being talked about without repeating the same words all the time.

Answer 98

anaphoric inference

Question 99

the process of inferring that events described in one clause or sentence were caused by events that occurred in a previous sentence

This involves understanding or inferring that one event in a sentence or clause was caused by a preceding event, creating a logical flow.

For example:

•	Sentence 1: “It started raining heavily.”
•	Sentence 2: “The soccer game was canceled.”

Answer 99

casual inference

Question 100

understanding spoken and written language, including processing language sounds; understanding words, sentences, and stories; and engaging in conversations

Answer 100

comprehension

Question 101

A —is a quick, simple rule or shortcut your brain uses to make decisions or solve problems without having to think too much. Instead of analyzing every detail, you rely on experience or general guidelines to come up with an answer faster. For example, when grocery shopping, you might choose a brand you’ve bought before because it’s familiar, without comparing all the options. _ help you save time, but they aren’t always perfect.

Answer 101

heuristic

Question 102

a condition in which words can have multiple meanings

Answer 102

lexical ambiguity

Question 103

lexical priming

Answer 103

a method involving the presentation of words with similar meanings to observe the priming effect on response times

Question 104

the process of grouping words into phrases while reading or hearing a string of words

“The old man the boats.”

At first glance, this sentence might seem confusing because we expect “man” to be a noun, but here it’s actually being used as a verb. Your brain has to —- it correctly to understand that the sentence means: “The old people are the ones who manage the boats.”

By breaking down the structure:

•	“The old” is the subject (referring to old people).
•	“man” is the verb (meaning to operate or manage).
•	“the boats” is the object.

—— helps you figure out this unusual sentence structure and get the correct meaning.

Answer 104

parsing

Question 105

the field concerned with the psychological study of language, focusing on cognitive mechanisms, such as comprehension, representation, speech production, and language acquisition

Answer 105

psycholinguistics

Question 106

representation
how language is ….. in the mind,

Answer 106

involving grouping words into phrases to create meaningful sentences and making connections between different parts of a story

Question 107

semantic segmentation

Answer 107

The process of recognizing individual words in speech is often done by using context clues, patterns we’ve learned from language, and our knowledge of what words mean.

Question 108

statistical regularities

Answer 108

Statistical regularities are patterns in how sounds in speech often go together within words and less often across words. Our brains pick up on these patterns, helping us know where one word ends and another begins, even if there are no clear pauses. For example, in English, “ba” is likely followed by “by” (as in “baby”) but rarely by “tle” (as in “bottle”). This way, we learn to identify words in a stream of speech by noticing common sound patterns.

Question 109

syntactic coordination

Answer 109

An example of syntactic coordination would be if one person says:

“Can you pass me the salt?”

The other person might respond with a similar structure, like:

“Sure, can you pass me the pepper?”

In this case, the second person follows the same question format because they unconsciously match the grammatical pattern of the first person’s sentence. This is an example of how people tend to mirror each other’s sentence structures during conversations.

Question 110

syntactic priming

Answer 110

syntactic priming, where hearing a certain way of speaking makes you more likely to use the same style.

the phenomenon where hearing a statement with a specific syntactic construction increases the likelihood of producing a sentence with the same construction; this reduces the computational load in conversation.

Question 111

visual world paradigm

Answer 111

a technique measuring eye movements to understand how information in a scene influences sentence processing

Question 112

the behaviorism vs. Chomsky debate led to..

Answer 112

the emergence of psycholinguistics.

Question 113

Word comprehension is impacted by factors like ..

Answer 113

frequency and contextual cues that aid pronunciation variation.

Question 114

Syntax

Answer 114

Syntax in natural language is the set of rules that determines how words are arranged to form sentences and phrases that make sense and follow the grammar of the language.

Question 115

Comprehending text involves…

Answer 115

making inferences beyond explicit information.

The sentence “making inferences beyond explicit information” means drawing conclusions or understanding things that are not directly stated, based on the available information. It involves using clues, context, or prior knowledge to figure out what is implied but not clearly said.

Question 116

What is a lexicon within cognitive psychology?

Answer 116

A lexicon is the stored knowledge for all of the words of our language.
Submit

Question 117

What did Rayner and Duffy discover about fixation times?

Answer 117

Fixation times are longer for low-frequency words.

This suggests that word familiarity plays a key role in how quickly and efficiently we process text.

Rayner and Duffy discovered that fixation times, or the amount of time a reader’s eyes pause on a word while reading, are influenced by the frequency of the word. Specifically, they found that readers fixate longer on less frequent or unfamiliar words compared to more common or familiar words.

Fixation times are longer for low-frequency words and on average were 87 ms longer for low-frequency words than for high-frequency words because our past experience with words influences our ability to access their meaning.

Question 118

How does syntactic coordination help establish common ground?

Answer 118

It helps people coordinate their grammatical statements during conversation

Syntactic priming occurs when hearing a statement in a syntactic structure increases the likelihood of using the same syntactic structure.

Question 119

How does the constraint-based approach explain how humans understand language?

Answer 119

By parsing sentences and not only using syntactic influences

The constraint-based approach of parsing is the idea that information in addition to syntax influences the understanding of language.

The constraint-based approach to parsing suggests that when we process language, we don’t rely solely on syntax (the structure and rules of sentences) to understand meaning. Instead, we use multiple sources of information—such as context, semantics (meaning of words and phrases), our prior knowledge, and even visual cues—to interpret sentences. This approach contrasts with theories that assume a purely syntactic or structure-first method of parsing, where the sentence structure alone determines understanding. By considering multiple constraints at once, this approach allows us to arrive at a more accurate and nuanced interpretation of language, especially in complex or ambiguous situations.

Parsing sentences means breaking down a sentence into its components to understand its structure and meaning. This process involves analyzing the grammatical elements, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and how they are arranged in phrases and clauses. Parsing helps us identify the relationships between words, such as which words are subjects, objects, or modifiers, so we can accurately interpret the sentence’s intended meaning. For example, in a sentence like “The cat chased the mouse,” parsing identifies “The cat” as the subject, “chased” as the verb, and “the mouse” as the object, clarifying who is doing what.

Question 120

The garden-path approach proposes that as a sentence is read, the reader uses…

Answer 120

heuristics about syntax to inform the meaning of the language.

The garden-path approach proposes that as a sentence is read, the reader uses a syntactic-first strategy to interpret its meaning. This means that the reader initially relies on grammatical structure alone, constructing the simplest interpretation based on syntax rules without considering other sources of information like context or meaning. When this initial interpretation leads to a misunderstanding—known as a “garden path”—the reader must backtrack and re-parse the sentence with additional information in mind. This approach explains why sentences like “The old man the boats” can momentarily mislead us until we reconsider the sentence structure and realize that “man” is being used as a verb rather than a noun.

Question 121

Temporary ambiguity is when..

Answer 121

a sentence appears to mean one thing, but then ends up meaning something else.

Question 122

Syntax sentence structure informs the reader about

Answer 122

what words may appear next.

Question 123

Where are spatial representations of an image held?

Answer 123

In a specific location

Kosslyn posited that different parts of a mental image correspond to different locations in space.

Kosslyn proposed that when we form mental images, we organize them spatially, much like how images are arranged in physical space. According to his theory, different parts of a mental image are mapped onto distinct locations in our mental “space,” allowing us to imagine details and spatial relationships as if we were looking at a real object. For instance, if you visualize a cat next to a tree, Kosslyn’s theory suggests that your mind organizes the cat and tree in separate spatial locations within your mental image, similar to how they would appear in a real-life scene. This spatial arrangement is thought to support tasks like scanning, zooming, and comparing parts of a mental image, as our minds treat them as if they occupy physical space.

Question 124

How are propositional representations formed?

Answer 124

As an equation or statement

Propositional representations of images take an abstract form.

Propositional representations are formed as abstract, language-like descriptions of information, rather than as visual or sensory images Instead of creating a mental picture, we encode the relationships between concepts in a structured, symbolic form. For instance, rather than visualizing a cat sitting on a mat, we might form a propositional representation that encodes “cat on mat.” Here, the idea of “on” describes the spatial relationship between “cat” and “mat” without needing a visual image.

These representations are structured in a way that can capture complex relationships, similar to logical or linguistic statements, and allow us to store, retrieve, and manipulate knowledge abstractly. They can be formed from language, sensory input, or prior knowledge, and they help us reason about the relationships and attributes of objects and concepts, especially when we don’t need a vivid mental picture.

Question 125

How is the visual cortex organized?

Answer 125

As a topographic map

Kosslyn found that images are mapped to different points on the cortex.

Question 126

How does the pegword technique assist in memory?

Answer 126

by placing objects with a concrete word

The pegword technique creates a link to assist in memory.

Question 127

Which term did Wundt’s theoretic approach use regarding sensations?

Answer 127

Structuralism

Wundt called his approach structuralism.

Question 128

What is the second stage of Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory?

Answer 128

Preoperational

Question 128

Which theory was developed by Piaget?

Answer 128

Piaget developed the Four-Stage Cognitive Development Theory.

Question 129

What is defined as intelligence that refers to information processing abilities?

Answer 129

Fluid

This type of intelligence refers to information processing abilities, such as logical reasoning, remembering lists, spatial ability, and reaction time.

Question 130

Crystalized refers to intelligence that

Answer 130

draws upon experience and knowledge, rather than information processing.

Question 131

Which aspect of lifespan development examines language?

Answer 131

Cognitive

This domain deals with the cognition abilities of a human being.

Question 132

Which subdomain of cognition describes solving problems of information overload?

Answer 132

Attention

Attention solves the problem of information overload in cognitive processing systems by selecting some information for further processing.

Question 133

Which specialized area of the temporal lobe allows a person to identify someone familiar in a crowded room?

Answer 133

Fusiform face area

Question 134

This part of the frontal lobe helps with language production rather than processing face information.

Answer 134

Broca’s area

Question 135

This area of the brain processes spatial information about places, rather than faces.

Answer 135

Parahippocampal place area

The parahippocampal place area (PPA) is a region of the brain located in the parahippocampal gyrus, within the medial temporal lobe. The PPA is known for its specialization in processing visual information related to scenes, places, and environmental contexts.

Key characteristics and functions of the PPA include:

•	Scene and Place Recognition: The PPA is activated when individuals view scenes or spaces, such as landscapes, rooms, or buildings, rather than specific objects or people. It plays a key role in identifying and understanding the spatial layout of environments.
•	Navigation and Spatial Memory: This area is important for navigation, as it helps individuals remember and recognize locations, navigate through environments, and build mental maps of spaces.
•	Differentiation from Other Visual Areas: While areas like the fusiform face area (FFA) specialize in recognizing faces, the PPA specifically processes the broader, more stable elements of a scene, like walls, landmarks, or overall spatial configuration, rather than transient objects or figures.
•	Interaction with Other Brain Regions: The PPA interacts with other areas involved in spatial processing, such as the retrosplenial cortex and the hippocampus, to support memory and orientation in space.

The PPA is essential for activities like recognizing familiar places, orienting oneself in new environments, and recalling spatial details of locations. Damage to this area can lead to impairments in spatial memory and navigation, sometimes resulting in a condition known as topographical disorientation, where individuals struggle to recognize or navigate familiar places.

Question 136

Extrastriate body area

Answer 136

The extrastriate body area (EBA) is a region of the brain located in the occipital and temporal lobes, specifically in the lateral occipital cortex. It is known to play a critical role in the visual processing of human body parts and figures. The EBA is activated when a person views images of bodies or body parts (like arms, legs, or torsos), but it is generally not activated by faces, objects, or scenes.

Here are some key points about the EBA:

•	Selective for Body Perception: The EBA is specialized for recognizing human body forms and parts, even in simple line drawings or silhouettes.
•	Role in Movement Perception: It also contributes to understanding and processing movements of the human body, which helps in recognizing actions and gestures.
•	Interaction with Other Brain Areas: The EBA works in conjunction with other brain areas, like the fusiform body area (FBA), which is also involved in body perception, and the primary visual cortex, which helps process the visual input before it reaches the EBA.

The EBA’s role in processing bodies and body parts is essential for social cognition, as it enables individuals to perceive and interpret body language and nonverbal cues accurately.

Question 137

Which lobe integrates sensory information and uses it to guide behavior?

Answer 137

The frontal lobe receives information sent from the sensory cortices, to use in decision-making processes.

Question 138

What is an example of localization of function in the brain?

Answer 138

An area in the temporal lobe is responsible for recognizing faces.

Localization of function is the idea that specific areas of the brain are responsible for specific functions.

Question 139

What are neurons that respond to specific visual properties called?

Answer 139

Feature detectors
are neurons that respond to a specific feature of a stimulus, such as orientation, movement, or length.

Question 140

Which lobe of the brain contains areas associated with facial recognition, object recognition,and language acquisition?

Answer 140

The temporal lobe contains areas involved in object recognition, face recognition, and language comprehension.

Question 141

Which term refers to a person’s knowledge of what words mean, how they sound, and how they are used in relation to other words?

Answer 141

Lexicon refers to all of the words a person knows, including their definitions and meanings.

Question 142

What is meant by given information in the given-new contract?

Answer 142

Information that the listener already knows

In a conversation, a speaker should construct sentences so that they contain both given information and new information.

Question 143

What is an example of lexical ambiguity?

Answer 143

The word “light” has more than one meaning.

Lexical ambiguity means that a word has more than one meaning.

Question 144

Why do children use word segmentation?

Answer 144

It helps them recognize individual words within continuous speech.

Word segmentation allows humans to recognize words within continuous speech.

Question 145

A child hears the following sentence: “The driver slowed down, looked in the mirror, then stopped the car.” Which cognitive process demonstrates a lexical priming?

Answer 145

he child processes the word “car” quickly because it is related to “driver.”

This demonstrates lexical priming, in which a word primes the meaning for a subsequent similar word.

Question 146

articulatory suppression

Answer 146

a phenomenon that occurs when a person is prevented from rehearsing items to be remembered by repeating an irrelevant sound, such as “the, the, the”

Question 147

central executive

Answer 147

The control center of the working memory system is known as the central executive. This component is essential for coordinating and managing the flow of information between the two main subsystems of working memory: the phonological loop (which handles verbal and auditory information) and the visuospatial sketchpad (which deals with visual and spatial information).

The central executive doesn’t store information itself but instead acts as a “supervisor” by:

•	Allocating attention to different tasks or types of information (like shifting focus between a conversation and reading a map).
•	Switching tasks or strategies, depending on what the person needs to remember or do (e.g., deciding to visualize a list of items rather than verbally rehearsing them).
•	Integrating information from the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad to help with complex cognitive tasks, such as problem-solving or decision-making.

For example, if you’re driving while listening to directions, the central executive would coordinate your mental resources so you can process the spoken instructions (phonological loop) while navigating and keeping an eye on your surroundings (visuospatial sketchpad). It keeps these tasks organized and ensures they don’t interfere with each other.

Question 148

the process of grouping small units of information into larger, meaningful units, increasing the capacity of STM

Answer 148

chunking

Question 149

control processes

Answer 149

An example of control processes in the modal model of memory is rehearsal—the conscious repetition of information to keep it in short-term memory or transfer it into long-term memory.

For instance, imagine you’re trying to memorize a phone number. You might repeat the digits to yourself multiple times to keep them in mind. This act of repetition is a control process that helps maintain the information in short-term memory, allowing you to hold onto it long enough to dial the number or possibly store it in long-term memory for future recall.

Other examples of control processes include:

•	Focusing attention on certain details in a text you’re reading, which helps you remember important points.
•	Elaborative encoding, such as creating associations or linking new information to something you already know, to make the information easier to remember.

These control processes vary by task and individual needs, giving people some flexibility in how they process and retain information.

Question 150

delayed-response task

Answer 150

An example of a delayed response task used in animal research involves training monkeys to remember the location of food. Here’s how it typically works:

1.	A monkey watches as a piece of food is hidden under one of two or more containers.
2.	A screen is lowered, blocking the monkey’s view of the containers for a set delay period, such as a few seconds or even minutes.
3.	After the delay, the screen is raised, and the monkey is allowed to choose a container.

To successfully retrieve the food, the monkey must hold the location information in working memory during the delay. If the monkey chooses the correct container, it shows that it retained the memory of where the food was hidden. This task helps researchers understand the role of working memory and the brain areas (like the prefrontal cortex) involved in maintaining information over short delays.

Question 151

echoic memory

Answer 151

the persistence of sound in the mind for a few seconds after the presentation of the original auditory stimulus

Question 152

the process of transferring information into long-term memory, illustrated in the modal model when Rachel memorizes the phone number for Mineo’s Pizza

Answer 152

encoding

Question 153

episodic buffer

Answer 153

The episodic buffer is a component of working memory proposed by Baddeley that temporarily holds and integrates information from different sources, including long-term memory (LTM), the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad. It helps explain how working memory can store more complex information and allows different types of information to interact.

Example:
Imagine you’re listening to a friend describe a memorable vacation while also picturing the beach they visited, recalling a similar experience you had. Here, the episodic buffer combines the verbal information from your friend (processed by the phonological loop), the mental image of the beach (processed by the visuospatial sketchpad), and your related memories from LTM, creating a richer, unified experience in your mind.This integration allows you to understand, connect, and respond meaningfully to the story.

Question 154

event-related potential (ERP)

Answer 154

A brain response recorded from scalp electrodes that reflects neural activity linked to cognitive processes like working memory.

Question 155

event-related potential (ERP)

Answer 155

the frontal lobe plays a significant role in thel event-related potentials (ERPs), especially for ERPs related to higher cognitive functions like attention, decision-making, and working memory. The frontal lobe, particularly the prefrontal cortex, is involved in processes like:

1.	Attention and Task Monitoring:
2.	Cognitive Control and Decision-Making:
3.	Memory and Language Processing: .

So, the frontal lobe is integral to ERPs, particularly for components that reflect complex cognitive tasks, as it helps manage and regulate the mental processes that ERPs capture.

Question 156

a short-lived sensory memory for visual stimuli that registers all or most of the information hitting visual receptors but decays within less than a second

Answer 156

iconic memory

Question 157

information processing approach

Answer 157

an approach to cognition that views the mind as a computer-like system that processes information through attention, perception, memory, and problem-solving

Question 158

the stage of memory that can hold a large amount of information for years or even decades, as proposed in the modal model of memory

Answer 158

long-term memory (LTM

Question 159

introduced by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in 1968,

Answer 159

The Atkinson-Shiffrin model (also known as the modal model of memory) was introduced by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in 1968. This model describes how information flows through three main types of memory:

1.	Sensory Memory – where sensory information is briefly held, like sights and sounds.
2.	Short-Term Memory – where information is temporarily stored and actively used for tasks.
3.	Long-Term Memory – where information is stored more permanently for future retrieval.

The model illustrates that information passes sequentially from sensory memory to short-term memory, and, with rehearsal, can transfer into long-term memory for lasting retention.

Question 160

neural dynamics of working memory

Answer 160

The neural dynamics of working memory are the brain’s ways of keeping information active and accessible for a short time so we can use it for tasks like problem-solving or making decisions.

Here’s a simple breakdown of how it works:

1.	Active Neurons: Certain brain cells (neurons), especially in the prefrontal cortex, keep firing to hold information, like remembering a phone number briefly. This activity keeps the information “online” even when we’re not actively thinking about it.
2.	Communication Between Brain Areas: Different parts of the brain, such as the prefrontal cortex and areas that handle visual or verbal information, work together. This teamwork lets us remember and work with different types of information at the same time.
3.	Brain Waves: Patterns of brain waves help organize and sync the activity of neurons across these areas. These waves, like theta and gamma rhythms, help coordinate when neurons fire so information stays clear and connected.

In short, working memory is like a temporary, active workspace in the brain, with neurons and brain waves working together to keep important information ready for whatever task we’re doing.

Question 161

persistence of vision

Answer 161

the continued perception of a visual stimulus after it is no longer present, lasting only a fraction of a second.

Question 162

phonological loop:

Answer 162

holds verbal and auditory information; consists of the phonological store and the articulatory rehearsal process

Question 163

recall

Answer 163

a memory task in which participants are presented with stimuli and, after a delay, asked to report back as many of the stimuli as possible

Question 164

You notice a must-have sweater on a TV commercial and want to remember the store’s name so you can buy it later.

Which scenario demonstrates the use of a control process of the modal model of memory to remember what store sold the sweater?

Answer 164

Repeating the store’s name for over a minute to remember it later

Focusing attention and then repeating the store’s name for over 20 seconds is an effective control process to encode information into long-term memory.

Question 164

a control process involving the repetition of a stimulus, such as repeating a phone number to keep it in STM, as depicted in the modal model

Answer 164

rehearsal

Question 165

Which scenario demonstrates sensory memory moving into short-term memory?

Answer 165

A person reads a phone number and repeats it to remember it
correct
This shows how intentionally focusing on sensory information will move it into short-term memory.

Question 166

Which example demonstrates how attention is controlled by the central executive?

Answer 166

When a student is studying for an exam and hears background noise from a nearby conversation, they actively choose to block out the noise to focus on their reading.

Here, the central executive is controlling attention by suppressing the distraction (the background conversation) and keeping the student’s focus on the study material. This deliberate focus-shifting and inhibition of distractions are key roles of the central executive in managing attention and working memory.

Question 167

Which is an effective way to remember an eight-digit account number?

Answer 167

By chunking the numbers into sets and associating those sets with meaningful information.
Chunking and relating the numbers to something meaningful will move information into long-term memory.

Question 168

What is measured by the paper folding test?

Answer 168

Spatial imagery

The Paper Folding Test measures spatial visualization ability or spatial reasoning

Question 169

Conceptual peg hypothesis

Answer 169

Which concept supports the paired-associate learning results?

The conceptual peg hypothesis is the idea that concrete words (like “apple” or “car”) create mental “pegs” that make it easier to remember related information. When we think of these tangible, imageable words, they act as anchors or “pegs” in our memory, allowing us to more easily link other ideas or words to them.

For example, if you need to remember the word pair “apple–idea,” it’s easier to recall than something abstract like “thought–concept” because “apple” creates a strong mental image. This image serves as a “peg” you can attach other, less concrete information to, making the whole pair easier to remember.

The conceptual peg hypothesis is often used to explain why creating vivid mental images can enhance memory, especially for paired-associate learning (remembering pairs of words or concepts).

Question 170

Mental chronometry

Answer 170

Mental chronometry is the study of how long it takes for the brain to process information and respond to tasks By measuring reaction times—the time between presenting a stimulus (like a sound or a visual cue) and a person’s response—researchers can understand the speed and stages of mental processes.

For example, if you’re shown a light and asked to press a button as soon as you see it, the time it takes for you to respond reflects the processing speed of your sensory perception and motor response. Researchers use this timing to break down complex tasks into steps, like perception, decision-making, and action, which helps in understanding how the brain handles different types of information and tasks.

Mental chronometry is commonly used in cognitive psychology and neuroscience to study attention, memory, and decision-making.

Question 171

Object imagery

Answer 171

Object imagery refers to the ability to create vivid, detailed mental images of objects, including their shape, color, texture, and other visual features. People with strong object imagery skills can easily visualize the appearance of objects and scenes in their mind, often with a high level of detail and color.

For example, if you ask someone with strong object imagery to imagine a beach, they might picture not only the sand and ocean but also specific details like the color of the sunset, the texture of the sand, and the shape of nearby shells.

Object imagery is different from spatial imagery, which focuses more on the position, movement, and relationships between objects in space rather than their detailed visual characteristics. Object imagery is often used in tasks that require a clear mental picture of what something looks like, such as in art or design.

Question 172

Visual imagery

Answer 172

Visual imagery is the mental ability to create and manipulate images in the mind, allowing us to “see” things without them being physically present. This process includes visualizing objects, scenes, people, or events and can involve aspects like color, shape, size, and movement.

For example, when you imagine a landscape with mountains and a lake, you’re using visual imagery to construct a mental picture of that scene. Visual imagery is important in many tasks, such as planning, problem-solving, recalling past events, and even learning by picturing information or scenarios.

Visual imagery can vary widely among individuals; some people visualize with great detail and color, while others may have a more abstract or less vivid mental picture. This skill plays a key role in creativity, memory, and even certain cognitive therapies.

Question 173

Which component of Broadbent’s flow diagram of the mind blocks unattended messages?

Answer 173

Filter

Question 174

What is mental imagery?

Answer 174

The ability to recreate sensory information without physical stimuli

This refers to the mental process of forming images, sounds, or other sensory experiences in the mind, even when the corresponding external stimuli are absent. For example, visualizing a familiar scene, hearing a song in your head, or imagining a specific scent are all forms of mental imagery. This cognitive process plays a role in memory, creativity, problem-solving, and learning.

Question 175

Which evidence disproves Aristotle’s assertion that “thought is impossible without an image”?

Answer 175

People who cannot visualize images are still capable of thinking.

Question 176

aphantasia

Answer 176

a condition where people are unable to create mental images

Question 177

Which stage of Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory does an individual begin to understand mathematical reasoning?

Answer 177

Concrete Operational

This stage occurs roughly between the ages of 7 to 11 years. During this phase, children develop logical thinking

Question 178

Which term describes a child’s tendency to fixate on just one aspect of a problem or object, according to Piaget?

Answer 178

Centration
is a key feature of the Preoperational stage of Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory, typically occurring between the ages of 2 and 7.

Question 179

Which stage in Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development is represented by a child’s ability to mentally represent objects and events with words and images?

Answer 179

Preoperational stage.

This stage occurs approximately between the ages of 2 and 7 years.

Question 180

Which kind of intelligence reflects abilities drawn from experience?

Answer 180

Crystalized

Crystallized intelligence involves the knowledge, skills, and abilities acquired through experience, education, and cultural exposure. It includes vocabulary, general knowledge, and problem-solving skills that are built up over time. This form of intelligence tends to improve or remain stable as individuals age, in contrast to fluid intelligence, which is the ability to solve novel problems and think abstractly without relying on prior knowledge.

Question 181

What is a component of psychosocial development?

Answer 181

A component of psychosocial development is Personality.

Psychosocial development, as described by Erik Erikson, involves the development of an individual’s personality through social interactions and experiences across different stages of life. Each stage presents a psychosocial crisis or challenge that influences personality traits, such as trust, autonomy, and identity, based on how individuals resolve these challenges in their social environments.

Question 182

Which mental framework is used in learning, according to Piaget?

Answer 182

Schemas.

According to Jean Piaget, the mental framework used in learning is based on schemas—mental structures that help individuals organize and interpret information. Piaget believed that children learn by constructing these schemas and adapting them through two key processes:

Assimilation: Integrating new information into existing schemas. For example, a child who knows about dogs might see a cat and initially label it as a dog because it fits their “four-legged animal” schema.
Accommodation: Modifying existing schemas or creating new ones when new information doesn’t fit. In the previous example, the child would eventually learn to create a separate schema for cats, differentiating them from dogs.
Together, assimilation and accommodation drive cognitive development as children interact with their environment, gradually refining their understanding and adapting their schemas. This process is central to Piaget’s theory of how learning and intelligence evolve.

Question 183

Which cortex of the frontal lobe is activated when someone determines whether another person appears to be physically attractive?

Answer 183

The Frontal cortex—specifically, the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC)—is involved when someone determines whether another person appears to be physically attractive. This region of the brain is associated with processing social judgments, such as evaluating attractiveness, making decisions about others, and emotional responses related to social interactions.

Question 184

Rear cortex

Answer 184

The rear cortex, often referred to as the occipital lobe, is located at the back of the brain and plays a key role in visual processing. It’s responsible for interpreting visual information like color, light, shape, and motion. The occipital lobe receives signals from the eyes through the optic nerve, processes them, and then sends the processed information to other parts of the brain to create a coherent visual understanding. Any damage or impairment to this area can lead to visual disturbances or even vision loss.

Question 185

Lower cortex

Answer 185

The “lower cortex” generally refers to areas of the cerebral cortex located toward the base of the brain, such as parts of the temporal lobe and the lower sections of the parietal lobe. These areas are associated with different complex functions:

1.	Temporal Lobe: Located on the sides of the brain, it plays a key role in processing auditory information, language comprehension, and memory. It houses the hippocampus, which is essential for forming new memories, and Wernicke’s area, which is important for understanding spoken and written language.
2.	Lower Parietal Lobe: This region integrates sensory information from various parts of the body and is involved in spatial orientation and navigation. It helps with tasks that require coordinating movements with sensory input, like reaching for objects or orienting oneself in space.

Together, these lower cortical regions help with processing sensory input, managing memory, language, and perception, and integrating this information into coherent experiences.

Question 186

Middle cortex

Answer 186

The “middle cortex” often refers to the areas of the brain located in the middle regions of the cerebral cortex, primarily the parietal lobe and parts of the frontal lobe. These regions are involved in various functions:

1.	Parietal Lobe: Positioned near the top-middle section of the brain, it plays a critical role in processing sensory information related to touch, temperature, pain, and proprioception (the sense of body position). It also contributes to spatial awareness, helping us navigate and understand our environment and coordinate hand-eye movements.
2.	Middle Frontal Cortex: This area includes parts of the prefrontal cortex, which is involved in higher-level cognitive functions such as planning, decision-making, working memory, and problem-solving. It’s essential for goal-oriented behaviors, social interactions, and regulating emotions.

These middle cortical regions contribute to a range of functions that integrate sensory information with complex cognitive processes, allowing us to understand our surroundings, make informed decisions, and interact meaningfully with others.

Question 187

What is the electrical impulse fired down the axon of a neuron?

Answer 187

The electrical impulse fired down the axon of a neuron is called an Action potential.

An action potential is a rapid change in electrical charge that travels along the axon, allowing neurons to transmit signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands. This process is fundamental for communication within the nervous system.

Question 188

Synaptic gap

Answer 188

The synaptic gap, or synaptic cleft, is the small space between two neurons where communication occurs. When a nerve impulse reaches the end of a neuron (the presynaptic neuron), it triggers the release of neurotransmitters, which are chemical messengers. These neurotransmitters travel across the synaptic gap to bind with receptors on the next neuron (the postsynaptic neuron), allowing the signal to continue its journey. This process is fundamental for transmitting information throughout the nervous system, enabling everything from muscle movement to complex thought processes.

Question 189

Voxel

Answer 189

In cognitive science and psychology, a voxel is commonly used in brain imaging research, particularly in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies. In this context, each voxel represents a small, cube-shaped volume of brain tissue, typically measuring 1-3 cubic millimeters. During fMRI scans, changes in blood flow within these voxels are measured as an indicator of neural activity in specific brain regions.

Since each voxel corresponds to a particular area in the brain, researchers can analyze brain activity patterns by tracking which voxels show changes in oxygen levels over time. This allows them to create a map of active brain regions associated with specific cognitive tasks, behaviors, or psychological states, making voxels an essential unit for understanding how different brain areas contribute to cognition, emotion, perception, and other mental processes.

Question 190

Which part of a neuron transports an electrical signal?

Answer 190

The axon is a long, thin extension of the neuron that carries electrical impulses (action potentials) away from the cell body toward other neurons, muscles, or glands. It serves as the main transmission line for signals within the nervous system, helping to relay information over long distances.

Question 191

A child reads the following incorrect sentence: “The car was traveling down the hills were beautiful.”

Which cognitive process illustrates the garden path model of parsing?

Answer 191

The child changes their mind from the subject being the car to the hills.

The garden path model of parsing suggests that readers initially interpret a sentence in a way that seems straightforward but may later realize that their interpretation was incorrect, requiring them to revise their understanding. In this example, the child first interprets “the car” as the subject of the sentence but then has to revise that interpretation when encountering “were beautiful,” realizing that “the hills” must be the subject instead.

Question 192

A student reads these two sentences: A dog was running. It slipped and fell.

Which thought process is an example of an anaphoric inference?

Answer 192

anaphoric inference is:

The student infers that the word “it” refers to the dog.

An anaphoric inference occurs when a reader connects a pronoun or other reference word (in this case, “it”) back to a previously mentioned noun (in this case, “the dog”). This helps the reader understand that “it” refers to the dog mentioned in the first sentence.

Question 193

A child reads the following incorrect sentence: “The car was traveling down the hills were beautiful.”

Which cognitive process illustrates causal inference?

Answer 193

The child infers that the hills being beautiful are caused by the motion of the moving car.

Causal inference involves understanding the cause-and-effect relationship between events described in a sentence. In this case, the child makes a connection between the car traveling down and the hills being beautiful, incorrectly inferring that the car’s movement is somehow causing the hills’ beauty.

Question 194

Why is establishing common ground important to conversations?

Answer 194

Establishing common ground is important to conversations because it aids in having an engaging discussion.

Common ground allows participants to share mutual understanding, assumptions, or knowledge, which facilitates clearer communication, deeper connection, and more productive dialogue. It helps ensure that both parties are on the same page, making it easier to exchange ideas, ask meaningful questions, and avoid confusion or misunderstandings during the conversation.

Question 195

Which conversation between two students demonstrates the process of entrainment?

Answer 195

The students both start speaking loudly and gesturing.

Entrainment refers to the synchronization of behaviors, speech patterns, or gestures between individuals during a conversation. It occurs when people unconsciously mirror each other’s body language, tone of voice, or speaking rhythm, often leading to smoother and more connected communication. In this case, both students matching each other’s volume and gestures exemplifies this process.

Question 196

Which property of words contributes to the word frequency effect?

Answer 196

word frequency effect is:

How often a word is used within a language.

The word frequency effect refers to the phenomenon where words that are used more frequently in a language are processed more quickly and easily than less common words. High-frequency words, such as “the” or “dog,” are recognized and understood faster than low-frequency words because of their regular use in everyday language.

Question 197

While studying in a noisy coffee shop, a student is able to focus solely on their textbook, tuning out the surrounding conversations and background music.

Which cognitive phenomenon does this scenario illustrate?

Answer 197

Selective attention

Question 198

The ability to maintain focus on a specific task or activity over a prolonged period of time. This is essential for tasks that require continuous concentration, like reading a book or listening to a lecture.

Answer 198

Sustained Attention

Question 199

The ability to process multiple stimuli or perform more than one task simultaneously. For example, multitasking, such as talking on the phone while cooking, requires divided attention.

Answer 199

Divided Attention

Question 200

The capacity to switch focus between two or more tasks or stimuli. This involves mental flexibility, such as alternating between writing an essay and checking email.

Answer 200

Alternating Attention

Question 201

The ability to respond to a specific stimulus or task while filtering out distractions. This is a short-term focus, such as paying attention to a sudden noise or a specific question in a conversation.

Answer 201

Focused Attention

Question 202

Executive Attention

Answer 202

Involves managing conflicting information and resolving cognitive conflicts. It is essential for decision-making, problem-solving, and managing complex tasks, like planning or adjusting strategies in real-time.

Question 203

A person is enjoying a day at the beach. They hear children playing, see the ocean waves, feel the warm sun, taste the salty air, and smell sunscreen.

Which state of consciousness is this person experiencing?

Answer 203

Wakeful state

In this state, they are fully alert and aware of their surroundings, processing multiple sensory inputs such as hearing, seeing, feeling, tasting, and smelling. This indicates active engagement with the environment, characteristic of being awake and conscious

Question 204

How does rotating shift work affect consciousness?

Answer 204

Rotating shift work primarily affects consciousness by disrupting a person’s sleep regulation, leading to insomnia and fatigue.

Shift work, especially rotating shifts, interferes with the body’s natural circadian rhythms, which regulate sleep-wake cycles. This misalignment can cause difficulties falling asleep or staying asleep at irregular times, resulting in chronic sleep deprivation, excessive daytime sleepiness, and impaired cognitive function. Over time, these sleep disruptions can affect attention, memory, decision-making, and overall mental health

Question 205

Which statement describes circadian rhythm in the sleep-wake cycle and consciousness?

Answer 205

Circadian rhythms regulate the sleep-wake cycle and impact alertness.

Circadian rhythms are 24-hour internal biological cycles that influence not only when we feel sleepy or awake but also impact overall alertness, body temperature, hormone production, and cognitive function throughout the day. These rhythms help regulate periods of wakefulness and sleep, playing a crucial role in maintaining consistent patterns of consciousness and physical well-being

Question 206

Which types of tasks have revealed cognitive deficits in people with a substance abuse disorder?

Answer 206

The types of tasks that have revealed cognitive deficits in people with a substance abuse disorder are working memory tests.

Substance abuse disorders are often associated with impairments in working memory, which involves the ability to temporarily hold and manipulate information for tasks such as reasoning, learning, and comprehension. Research has shown that people with substance use disorders can experience deficits in attention, executive function, and memory, and working memory tasks are particularly revealing of these cognitive impairments

Question 207

Spatial Awareness Puzzles

Answer 207

Mental Rotation Tasks: Require individuals to mentally rotate objects to determine if two figures are the same, assessing spatial reasoning and visualization.
Block Design Test (from the WAIS): Tests spatial problem-solving and visual-motor coordination by asking individuals to arrange blocks to match a given pattern

Question 208

Verbal Matching Puzzles

Answer 208

are tasks where individuals match words based on relationships like synonyms, antonyms, or categories. For example, participants may pair words with similar or opposite meanings, testing their language skills, vocabulary, and understanding of word relationships.

Question 209

Which test measures brain activity to determine a person’s stage of sleep or consciousness?

Answer 209

Electroencephalogram (EEG).

EEG tracks and records electrical activity in the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp. It is commonly used to study different stages of sleep and monitor changes in brain waves related to various states of consciousness.

Question 210

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI

Answer 210

MRI provides detailed images of the brain’s structure using powerful magnets and radio waves. It’s primarily used to detect structural abnormalities, such as tumors, brain injuries, or degenerative diseases.

Question 211

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Answer 211

PET scans measure metabolic activity in the brain by using a small amount of radioactive material. It helps to visualize how tissues and organs are functioning, often used to detect abnormalities in metabolism, such as in cancer detection or neurological conditions like Alzheimer’s disease.

Question 212

What does the Stroop interference task use to demonstrate a slower reaction time?

Answer 212

Displaying color words in different color fonts.

In this task, participants are asked to name the color of the ink a word is printed in, but the word itself names a different color (e.g., the word “blue” printed in red ink). The conflict between the meaning of the word and the ink color creates interference, slowing reaction time as the brain processes competing information.

Question 213

A kindergarten student is trying to solve a handheld maze. The student focuses on the last step of the maze, causing them to miss earlier steps.

What process describes why the student has a difficult time discovering the first step required to solve the maze?

Answer 213

Fixation causes the student to focus too much on the last part of the maze and to overlook important steps at the beginning.

Fixation refers to the cognitive tendency to focus on a specific part of a problem, which can prevent individuals from seeing other aspects of the solution, such as earlier steps in the maze in this case.

Question 214

A teenager’s car won’t start because the battery is drained after leaving the headlights on overnight. He realizes he needs jumper cables after recalling a childhood memory of his parents jump-starting the family car after the battery died.

Which recognition and memory retrieval processes were involved in this problem-solving?

Answer 214

Noticing, mapping, and applying

Question 215

Which example demonstrates Newell and Simon’s approach to problem solving?

Answer 215

A person planning an event makes a list of to-dos and begins working on one task at a time until they are all completed.

Question 216

Which example demonstrates the importance of how a problem statement is presented for effective problem solving?

Answer 216

A person reads a prompt for an essay question and notices that the teacher used certain language, which helped the person eliminate incorrect answers.

Question 217

A student started a new club for their school and is thinking of ways to increase participation.

Which scenario is based on the student’s use of analogical transfer?

Answer 217

The student uses colorful flyers to advertise the club because they remember that this strategy previously led to increased school voting.

Question 218

A musician is having a difficult time composing a new song. They spend a week camping alone in the mountains, completing the song while in the wilderness.

How can the musician’s solitude contribute to this creativity and solve the problem?

Answer 218

The musician could avoid distractions and find space to think, allowing them to generate new ideas.

Question 219

What is the relationship between open monitoring meditation and creativity?

Answer 219

Open monitoring meditation is associated with enhanced creativity because it causes greater activation of the default mode network.

Question 220

A basketball coach is judging two potential players for recruitment and presumes that the taller athlete is more talented than the shorter one.

What thought process does the coach utilize?

Answer 220

A stereotype about height and performance

Question 221

A first-year university student readily makes new friends with their engineering classmates. The student assumes that all engineers must be outgoing like their classmates.

How does this case demonstrate misuse of the representativeness heuristic?

Answer 221

The student shows a bias involving a small sample of the population.

Question 222

applying permission schemas

Answer 222

Some states apply rules such as, “If a citizen reaches the age of 16, then they may obtain a driver’s license.”

How does deductive reasoning govern such rules?

Deductive reasoning with permission schemas involves understanding “if-then” rules as a structure for allowing certain actions under specific conditions. In the case of the rule “If a citizen reaches the age of 16, then they may obtain a driver’s license,” deductive reasoning applies the permission schema by logically linking age to eligibility.

Question 223

Which conclusion is drawn from performance on conditional reasoning tasks, such as the Wason four-card problem?

Answer 223

Performance improves when problems are stated in real-world terms.

The Wason four-card problem is a classic test in psychology used to study reasoning and logic. It was developed by Peter Wason in 1966 as a way to examine conditional reasoning, specifically how people evaluate “if-then” statements.

Problem Setup

Participants are presented with four cards. Each card has a number on one side and a color (usually red or blue) on the other. For instance, the cards might show:

•	Card 1: 3
•	Card 2: 8
•	Card 3: Red
•	Card 4: Blue

The task involves testing a rule, like:
“If a card shows an even number on one side, then it must have a red color on the other side.”

The Question

The participant is asked:
Which card(s) must you turn over to test if the rule is true?

Solution

The correct answer requires evaluating both the presence of even numbers and red colors, and logically, you need to turn over two specific cards:

1.	The card showing “8” (an even number) – to check if it has a red color on the other side.
2.	The card showing “Blue” – to ensure it does not have an even number on the other side, which would violate the rule.

The cards showing “3” (odd number) and “Red” don’t need to be turned because:

•	The card with “3” isn’t relevant, as it’s odd and doesn’t test the “even number” condition.
•	The “Red” card doesn’t provide any information about an even number on the opposite side.

Common Mistake

People often turn over the “8” card and the “Red” card. This is incorrect because turning the “Red” card doesn’t test the rule; the rule only concerns even numbers needing to have red on the opposite side, not whether red cards must have even numbers.

Key Takeaway

This problem illustrates confirmation bias, where people tend to seek information that confirms their assumptions rather than testing conditions that might disprove them.

Question 224

Why do humans naturally gravitate toward using the oblique effect when constructing our own environments?

Answer 224

Because horizontals and verticals occur more frequently in the natural world

The oblique effect means that we prefer horizontal and vertical lines

Question 225

How do intentions influence mirror neurons?

Answer 225

Intentions influence mirror neurons by activating them in ways that help us understand the purpose behind others’ actions, not just the actions themselves. This allows us to interpret meaning, feel empathy, and predict behavior, which enhances social connection and learning. By processing intentions, mirror neurons help us relate to others on a deeper level, fostering social understanding and cooperation.

Intentions play a crucial role in influencing mirror neurons by activating them in ways that go beyond mere observation of actions. Mirror neurons are specialized brain cells that fire both when we perform an action and when we observe someone else performing the same action, helping us understand others’ actions and emotions. When it comes to intentions, mirror neurons engage more deeply, helping us not only to mirror the observed action but also to interpret the purpose behind it.

Here’s how intentions influence mirror neurons:

1.	Interpreting Purpose: When we observe someone performing an action, our mirror neurons don’t just respond to the movement itself—they help us infer the intention behind it. For example, if we see someone reaching for a cup, our mirror neurons activate differently depending on whether we perceive they’re reaching to drink or to clean it. This helps us understand why the action is being performed, not just what it is.
2.	Empathy and Social Connection: Understanding intentions is essential for empathy, as it allows us to connect with others emotionally. By interpreting intentions, mirror neurons help us relate to others’ experiences and feel what they might be feeling, which is a fundamental part of social bonding and cooperation.
3.	Learning through Observation: Intentions shape how we learn from watching others. When we see someone perform an action with a clear purpose, our mirror neurons help us grasp the “how” and “why” of the action, making it easier to imitate or learn the skill ourselves. This understanding helps us replicate actions more accurately and with the right context.
4.	Predictive Processing: By understanding intentions, mirror neurons allow us to predict what someone will do next, based on the context. For example, if someone starts to stand up, we can predict they’re likely about to leave the room or move somewhere. This prediction helps us respond more effectively in social situations.

In essence, intentions modulate how mirror neurons respond, giving us insights into the reasons behind others’ actions and enhancing our social understanding. This deeper processing supports empathy, learning, and social interaction, making mirror neurons a key part of human social intelligence.

Question 226

A community construction project is proposed in two different ways to an environmentally conscious audience. Group A is told that only 20% of the trees will be torn down, while Group B is told that 80% of the trees will be saved.

Which statement accurately describes the groups’ anticipated responses to the community project, based on the principles of the framing effect?

Answer 226

Group B is more likely to favor the project since the focus is on retention and gain of 80% of the trees, rather than the 20% loss of trees.

Question 227

A student is in a study lounge watching a video for a class and can fully focus on the video despite people chatting in the background and a clock loudly ticking.

How does the student process different stimuli in order to focus on the desired task?

Answer 227

The student filters stimuli through the cocktail party effect

The cocktail party effect is a specific example of selective attention.

Question 228

A person plans to attend a reception later that night and needs to select an outfit for the event.

Which statement demonstrates an automatic decision for the person?

Answer 228

They quickly decide on an outfit they typically wear to events without being consciously aware that they selected it.

Question 229

How did Strayer and Johnston’s research influence the study of attention?

Answer 229

By demonstrating that both attention and response time are negatively impacted by talking on a mobile device while driving

Question 230

A researcher presents a video of a street intersection and asks that participants count how many people walked through the intersection. In the video, a limousine passes through the intersection.

Which example would demonstrate inattentional blindness?

Answer 230

Some participants do not notice the limousine because they are focused on the people.

Question 231

A hiker walks along a trail looking for a spot for a picture when an unseen snake hisses from the nearby woods.

Which statement is true regarding the hiker’s ability to notice the snake?

Answer 231

They will notice the snake’s hiss if they recognize it as a danger signal.

Question 232

Why is binding important in attention?

Answer 232

Binding makes it possible to perceive a whole object rather than a collection of its parts

Binding is important in attention because it allows us to combine various sensory features—like color, shape, and motion—into a single, unified perception of an object. This integration helps us focus on specific objects or tasks as whole entities, supporting clear perception and effective interaction with our environment.

Question 233

A traveler can attend to what the hotel’s concierge says about lunch options based on how loudly they are speaking, while disregarding other verbal communications happening in the noisy lobby.

How is Broadbent’s model of attention used in this scenario?

Answer 233

The traveler uses filtering to focus on the lunch options over the lobby noise.

Question 234

Which example shows how sensory memory results in the persistence of vision when watching fireworks?

Answer 234

Fireworks appear as falling trails of light due to iconic memories lasting fractions of a second.

Question 235

Which explanation shows how multiple forms of memory would contribute to effective execution of a mental math problem?

Answer 235

Numbers are held in short-term memory and manipulations are conducted on the numbers in working memory when solving the math problem

Question 236

Which scenario exemplifies how the articulatory rehearsal process contributes to a student’s short-term memory for course lecture material, according to Baddeley’s model?

Answer 236

The student repeats silently what their instructor has said before writing it down concisely on paper.

Question 237

A person is trying to recall the names of a set of seven actors whose pictures were briefly presented upside down.

What explains how the episodic bufferenhances working memory in this scenario?

Answer 237

The episodic buffer is a part of working memory that combines information from different sources—like what we see and hear—into a single, organized memory. It connects working memory with long-term memory, helping us form complete memories of events and understand complex information more easily.

The episodic buffer connects with long-term memory of the actors’ faces and names, bringing content into working memory.

Question 238

How does activity-silent working memory help performance on mental rotation problems?

Answer 238

Strengthening of connections between neurons helps performance on mental rotation problems.

Question 239

How is the primacy effect related to attention for a set of words presented sequentially?

Answer 239

The first word presented receives the person’s full attention.

Question 240

Which example shows Westmacott and Moscovitch’s concept of autobiographically significant semantic memories?

Answer 240

A person recalls the name of the actor that they saw in the airport years ago.

An example of Westmacott and Moscovitch’s concept of autobiographically significant semantic memories would be remembering factual information that has a personal connection, like knowing details about a famous musician because their music played a key role in your life. For instance, remembering facts about The Beatles because their songs remind you of your childhood or significant life events combines general knowledge (semantic memory) with personal relevance (autobiographical significance). This type of memory is not just factual but also holds emotional or personal meaning, making it more vivid and easily recalled.

Question 241

A person is studying a list of types of fish for a wildlife test that will occur in one week.

Which example illustrates the combined long-term memory encoding strategies of visual imagery and organization?

Answer 241

The person imagines each fish on a tree structure corresponding to categories of fish types.

Question 241

A person went on a trip to the ocean.

Which example shows the concept of autobiographical memory as an integration of episodic and semantic memories for this scenario?

Answer 241

The person remembers jumping in the waves and the outdoor temperature that day

Question 242

the generation effect

Answer 242

is a phenomenon in cognitive psychology where information that is actively generated or created by a person is remembered better than information that is simply read or received passively. This effect relates to attention in paired-associate tasks because generating one of the paired associates (rather than just passively viewing it) increases engagement with the material, which enhances attention and subsequent memory.

In a paired-associate task, individuals are usually asked to memorize pairs of words (e.g., “dog – bone”). When they are required to generate the second word themselves based on a cue (for example, given “dog,” they have to think of “bone”), they engage more attentively with the pairing due to the additional cognitive effort involved in the generation process. This active engagement draws more attentional resources to the task, leading to stronger encoding in memory.

Question 243

Which stimuli are remembered best in a long-term memory task according to Nairne’s evolutionary theory of encoding?

Answer 243

Stimuli judged as useful for providing protection

Question 244

Which example shows the difference between the standard model of consolidation and the multiple trace model of consolidation regarding encoding episodic memories about a trip to a lake?

Answer 244

The standard model of consolidation argues that the hippocampus is involved only in the early development of lake trip memories, but the multiple trace model argues that the hippocampus remains active in long-term trip memories.

Question 245

A person is studying a list of names of pastries for their new job at a bakery.

Which example shows the interaction between the deep processing strategies of generation and self-reference?

Answer 245

The person creates flashcards for the names of the pastries, pairing each with an estimate of how appetizing the pastry appears.

Question 246

What has research determined about the association between neutral language or profanity and enhanced memory?

Answer 246

Arousing words that reference profanity or explicit content are more memorable than neutral words.

Question 247

Which example demonstrates the application of Bartlett’s repeated reproduction when a student is tested on course content?

Answer 247

A student discusses the content in their study guide four times, then five times, daily for two days before a test to concisely recall the information.

Question 248

the Proust effect

Answer 248

The Proust effect refers to the powerful connection between memory and the senses, especially smell.
A person smells freshly chopped wood and recalls a cabin vacation with their family.

Question 249

Which significant findings did the “War of Ghosts” experiment demonstrate regarding the effect of repeated reproduction on recall?

Answer 249

Increased time passage led to greater inaccuracies and omissions in recall of the stories based on cultural context

ChatGPT
The “War of the Ghosts” experiment by Frederic Bartlett showed that memory is reconstructive rather than a perfect record. Over repeated recalls, participants distorted details, simplified, and rationalized the story to fit their cultural expectations. They gradually omitted culturally unfamiliar elements, added new details to make the story coherent, and retained the gist rather than specific details. This experiment demonstrated that memory is influenced by schemas (mental frameworks) and is prone to change over time, reflecting personal biases and cultural context.

Question 250

Source monitoring

Answer 250

Where did I learn that?

A person surprises themself in recalling the name of an artist most have not heard of.
source monitoring is a process that occurs when a person tries to remember how they learned that fact.

Question 251

Which factor affects the accuracy and reliability of eyewitness testimony?

Answer 251

Eyewitnesses may not see all aspects of a given incident.

Question 252

Researchers Robert Nash and Kimberley Wade ran an experiment in which participants played a gambling game on a computer and were later shown a modified video of themselves cheating.

What did this experiment reveal about false confessions?

Answer 252

Participants confessed to cheating after being shown the modified video, even though they did not recall cheating, indicating the power of suggestive questioning and manipulated evidence.

Question 253

Which example reflects the impact of the self-image hypothesis?

Answer 253

A person remembers graduating from law school

The self-image hypothesis suggests that people are more likely to remember events or details that align with their self-concept or self-identity. A classic example reflecting this hypothesis would be:

“A person who sees themselves as athletic is more likely to remember specific events or achievements related to sports, fitness milestones, or compliments on their physical strength.”

In this case, memories connected to their athletic identity are reinforced because they align with the individual’s self-image.

Question 254

a process that contributes to an organism’s ability to adjust to its environment and enhance its chances of survival

Answer 254

adaptive process

Question 255

the representation of information in the mind in the form of sound, observed in both STM and LTM

Answer 255

auditory coding

Question 256

memory for specific experiences from one’s own life, containing both episodic and semantic components

Answer 256

autobiographical memory:

Question 257

double dissociation

Answer 257

Double dissociation is a way to show that two mental functions are controlled by different parts of the brain. If damage to one area affects Function A but not Function B, and damage to another area affects Function B but not Function A, it confirms that these functions operate independently.

Example: In language, damage to Broca’s area disrupts speaking ability (Function A) but leaves understanding intact (Function B). In contrast, damage to Wernicke’s area disrupts understanding but not speaking. This “double dissociation” proves that speaking and understanding rely on separate brain regions.

Question 258

memory for events in your life (like what you did last weekend)

Answer 258

episodic memory

Question 259

the part of LTM that stores personally experienced events and episodes

Answer 259

episodic long-term memory

Question 260

memory that involves conscious awareness and the ability to articulate memories, such as episodic and semantic memories

Answer 260

explicit memory

Question 261

a neuroimaging technique that measures and maps brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow

Answer 261

fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

Question 262

a brain structure involved in the formation of new long-term memories, also showing activity during the maintenance of novel information in short-term memory

Answer 262

hippocampus

Question 263

the phenomenon where participants are more likely to remember words presented at the beginning of a sequence, often associated with long-term memory

Answer 263

primacy effect

Question 264

procedural memory

Answer 264

memory for physical actions (such as how to ride a bike or play a piano)

Procedural memory is a type of implicit memory, but they are not exactly the same.

Implicit memory refers to unconscious memories or learned skills that do not require active recall. It includes things you “just know” how to do without thinking about them.

Procedural memory is a specific type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and actions, like riding a bike, typing, or playing an instrument.

So, while all procedural memories are implicit (unconscious and automatic), not all implicit memories are procedural. Implicit memory also includes other forms, like priming and classical conditioning, which do not necessarily involve motor skills or routines.

Question 265

repetition priming

Answer 265

also known as direct or perceptual priming.
In repetition priming, a stimulus that a person has previously encountered (the priming stimulus) enhances their response when they see the same or a similar stimulus again (the test stimulus). This results in faster processing or a more accurate response, even if the person is not consciously aware of having seen it before.

Example:
If you see the word “flower” in one part of a task (the priming stimulus), you’re likely to recognize or respond to the word “flower” more quickly the next time you see it (the test stimulus). This happens because your brain has already processed the stimulus once, making it easier and faster to recognize it again.

Question 266

the phenomenon where participants are more likely to remember words presented at the end of a sequence, often associated with STM

Answer 266

recency effect

Question 267

semantic coding

Answer 267

Semantic coding is a type of encoding in memory where we process and store information based on its meaning, rather than its exact words or sensory details. When we use semantic coding, we focus on the concept, context, or associations related to the information, which often makes it easier to remember in the long term.

Example:
If you read a story about a dog that helps its owner in various ways, instead of remembering each specific sentence, you might remember the main idea — that dogs can be helpful companions. By storing this general concept (meaning) rather than exact words, you’re using semantic coding. This method of encoding is especially powerful in long-term memory, as meaningful information tends to be easier to recall than isolated facts or random details.

Question 268

the perspective from which a person “sees” or observes an event, whether from above, at eye level, or below eye level

Answer 268

visual viewpoint

Question 269

a system that involves dynamic processes and is responsible for complex cognitive functions, such as language comprehension, problem-solving, and decision-making

Answer 269

working memory

Question 270

Which scenario demonstrates the semanticization of remote memories?

Answer 270

A child remembers being taught how to draw a lion in a classroom with blue walls and a space-themed carpet.
This demonstrates how episodic details in LTM decay over time if not encoded as personally significant.

Question 271

Which example demonstrates the interaction between episodic and personal semantic memories?

Answer 271

A person is building a bookshelf and remembers the last one they built was unsteady and kept falling, so now they build the bookshelf on a level surface.

Question 272

A journalist interviews a painter and asks, “How do you paint with such skill?”

Which response from the artist demonstrates expert-induced amnesia?

Answer 272

“I don’t know exactly. I do not think about it. I just know how to do it when I do it.’’

This demonstrates how after a skill is practiced enough, it eventually requires no focused attention to perform.

Question 273

Which is an example of priming?

Answer 273

Kelvin smells pizza while driving through the city and then has an intense craving for pizza later that night when thinking of what to order for dinner.

Priming effects often occur without the person being aware of the initial priming event.

Question 274

the concept that memory is not static or fixed but is constantly being constructed and remodeled in response to new learning and changing conditions

Answer 274

work in progress

Question 275

an association between a neutral stimulus (tone) and an aversive stimulus (shock) in classical conditioning

Answer 275

tone–shock pairing

Question 276

the idea that memory retrieval is better when a person’s internal state, such as mood or awareness, during retrieval matches their internal state during encoding

Answer 276

state-dependent learning

Question 277

the idea that sleep enhances the consolidation of memories

Answer 277

sleep-dependent memory consolidation

Question 278

the process by which a retrieved memory becomes fragile and needs to be consolidated again, making it susceptible to modification or elimination

Answer 278

reconsolidation

Question 279

the front part of the brain, involved in decision-making, problem-solving, and other complex cognitive functions

Answer 279

prefrontal cortex

Question 280

multiple trace model:

Answer 280

a model of consolidation proposing that the hippocampus remains in active communication with cortical areas, even for remote memories

Question 281

the process during consolidation where the hippocampus replays neural activity associated with a memory and sends this information to the cortex

Answer 281

memory reactivation

Question 282

enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimulation, resulting in the strengthening of synaptic transmission

Answer 282

long-term potentiation (LTP)

Question 283

a phenomenon where certain study techniques, such as rereading or highlighting, may create the illusion of effective learning without necessarily resulting in better memory for the material

Answer 283

illusion of learning

Question 284

a characteristic of retrograde amnesia where the amnesia tends to be most severe for events that happened just before the injury and becomes less severe for earlier events

Answer 284

graded amnesia

Question 285

enhancing learning and retention by actively generating material yourself rather than passively receiving it

Answer 285

generation effect

Question 286

a recall procedure where participants are asked to freely recall stimuli, such as words or events, without specific cues

Answer 286

free recall

Question 287

a state in which a memory becomes susceptible to change or disruption

Answer 287

fragile state

Question 288

Which method is effective for encoding information into long-term memory for later retrieval, according to the levels of processing theory?

Answer 288

Repeating and then associating song lyrics with the words of a favorite poem
By repeating the information and associating it to something meaningful, the words will move into long-term memory and be able to be retried later.

Question 289

Which is an example of matching in the memory retrieval process?

Answer 289

Going back to a childhood home and recalling more details of an old memory
Matching encoding and retrieval conditions will help a person remember added details of a long-term memory.

Question 290

What does Nader’s rat experiment explain about memory reconsolidation?

Answer 290

The possibility that retrieved memories can become fragile upon retrieval
The possibility that retrieved memories can become fragile upon retrieval was the focal point of Nader’s Rat Experiment.

Question 291

Which scenario is an example of trying to recall information from long-term memory?

Answer 291

Being presented with six nouns, then remembering three of them hours later because you saw images of those items in a store window that morning.

This is an example of being presented with recall cues to effectively retrieve long-term memory.

Question 292

memory that pertains to personal experiences and events in one’s life

Answer 292

autobiographical memory

Question 293

memories are constructed based on actual events, along with additional factors like knowledge, experiences, and expectations

Answer 293

constructive nature of memory

Question 294

the aspect of intelligence that relies on accumulated knowledge, experience, and skills, often measured through tasks involving vocabulary, problem-solving, and comprehension

Answer 294

crystallized intelligence

Question 295

the component of intelligence associated with information processing abilities, such as logical reasoning, spatial ability, and reaction time, which tends to decline with age

Answer 295

fluid intelligence

Question 296

misleading information presented after a person witnesses an event that can change how the person describes that event later

Answer 296

misinformation effect:

Question 297

mechanisms responsible for the functioning of the nervous system, particularly in the context of memory

Answer 297

neural mechanisms

Question 298

a phenomenon where people over 40 tend to remember events from adolescence and young adulthood better than events from other periods

Answer 298

reminiscence bump

Question 299

a method involving testing participants multiple times after an event to assess changes in memory over time

Answer 299

repeated recall

Question 300

hormones, such as cortisol, released during and after emotionally arousing stimuli, impacting memory consolidation

Answer 300

stress hormones

Question 301

assessments of how vivid and detailed memories are

Answer 301

vividness ratings

Question 302

the process by which two problems are compared and similarities between them are determined

Answer 302

analogical encoding

Question 303

the phenomenon where solutions to problems appear after putting the problem aside for a certain period

Answer 303

creative incubation

Question 304

a brain network whose activity decreases when a person is involved in a specific task and increases when attention isn’t focused on a task. Associated with mind wandering and creative thinking

Answer 304

default mode network (DMN

Question 305

thinking that is open-ended, involving a large number of potential “solutions.”

Answer 305

divergent thinking

Question 306

a brain network that is involved in directing attention as a person carries out tasks, playing a crucial role in creativity

Answer 306

executive control network (ECN)

Question 307

the measure of the connectivity between different brain networks during specific tasks or stages of a process

Answer 307

functional connectivity

Question 308

a period during which participants carry out a task with a low or high rate of mind wandering before attempting to solve a problem

Answer 308

incubation period

Question 309

a problem-solving strategy that aims to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states by creating subgoals, which are intermediate states closer to the goal

Answer 309

means–end analysis

Question 310

a preconceived notion about how to approach a problem, influenced by past experiences and preconceptions about object functions

Answer 310

mental set

Question 311

the set of all possible states, including initial, goal, and intermediate states, in a problem-solving process

Answer 311

problem space

Question 312

a process emphasized by Gestalt psychologists, involving a change in the representation of a problem leading to a solution without relying on mathematical equations

Answer 312

restructuring

Question 313

in analogical transfer, the problem the participant is trying to solve, which shares some similarities with the source problem

Answer 313

target problem

Question 314

a problem used to illustrate the Newell-Simon approach to problem-solving, involving moving discs from an initial state to a goal state using specified rules and operators

Answer 314

tower of Hanoi problem

Question 315

a procedure for stimulating the brain using electrodes to deliver direct current, influencing the excitability of neurons in specific areas

Answer 315

transcranial direct current stimulation

Question 316

another demonstration of functional fixedness, which illustrates the difficulty of tying two distant strings, inhibited by a fixed perception of their conventional use

Answer 316

two-string problem

Question 317

a type of processing in perception that involves analyzing information from the environment and building up to a perception based on sensory input

Answer 317

bottom-up processing

Question 318

a system designed to perceive and recognize objects and scenes using computer processing

Answer 318

computer-vision system

Question 319

another term for the “where pathway,” referring to the pathway from the occipital lobe to the parietal lobe. It is involved in determining an object’s location and coordinating actions toward it

Answer 319

dorsal pathway

Question 320

an approach to perception that emphasizes built-in principles of organization. Gestalt psychologists argued that these principles could override past experiences, assigning a central role to bottom-up processing in perception

Answer 320

Gestalt approach

Question 321

proposed by Hermann von Helmholtz, this theory suggests that perception involves unconscious assumptions or inferences based on past experiences

Answer 321

Helmholtz’s theory of unconscious inference

Question 322

Hermann von Helmholtz’s idea that the perceptual system “decides” what object caused a pattern of stimuli based on the likelihood of that object producing the pattern

Answer 322

likelihood principle

Question 323

neurons in the premotor cortex that fire both when an individual performs a specific action and when they observe someone else performing the same action. Mirror neurons are implicated in understanding and imitating actions

Answer 323

mirror neurons

Question 324

the process of perceiving and recognizing objects in the environment. It involves integrating sensory information and prior experiences to identify and understand the properties of objects

Answer 324

object perception

Question 325

an effect where humans perceive horizontals and verticals more quickly than other orientations due to the physical regularity of more frequent vertical and horizontal orientations in the environment

Answer 325

oblique effect

Question 326

the cognitive system responsible for processing sensory information and forming perceptions

Answer 326

perceptual system

Question 327

a Gestalt principle stating that every stimulus pattern is seen in a way that is as simple as possible to result in a structure

Answer 327

pragnanz

Question 328

characteristics associated with the functions carried out in different types of scenes, contributing to perception based on the meaning of a scene

Answer 328

semantic regularities

Question 329

a type of processing in perception that involves using prior knowledge or expectations to influence the interpretation of sensory information

Answer 329

top-down processing

Question 330

in Saffran’s experiment, the likelihood of one sound transitioning to another, influencing infants’ sensitivity to part-word stimuli

Answer 330

transitional probabilities

Question 331

the process proposed by Helmholtz where perceptions result from unconscious assumptions or inferences based on past experiences

Answer 331

unconscious inference

Question 332

the ability to focus on one stimulus while filtering out other stimuli, demonstrated in noisy environments where people can focus on a conversation despite multiple other conversations happening simultaneously

Answer 332

cocktail party effect:

Question 333

an experimental technique involving presenting different stimuli to the left and right ears, used by Colin Cherry (1953) to study attention

Answer 333

dichotic listening

Question 334

Anne Treisman’s modification of Broadbent’s model, proposing a two-stage selection process involving an attenuator that analyzes messages based on physical characteristics, language, and meaning

Answer 334

Treisman’s attenuation model:

Question 335

the amount of information people can handle, influencing the ability to ignore distracting stimuli

Answer 335

processing capacity:

Question 336

how much processing capacity a task uses based on the difficulty of a task

Answer 336

perceptual load

Question 337

a map created by analyzing characteristics like color, orientation, and intensity, indicating the visual salience of different locations in a scene

Answer 337

saliency map

Question 338

keeping the eyes still and shifting attention “with the mind”

Answer 338

covert attention

Question 339

stimuli that direct attention away from the task being performed

Answer 339

distractor stimuli

Question 340

eye movements occurring just before needing the information they will provide

Answer 340

just-in-time strategy

Question 341

procedure indicating where a test stimulus will appear to enhance the processing of the target stimulus

Answer 341

pre-cueing

Question 342

the phenomenon where individuals fail to detect visual changes in a scene or picture when their attention is not directed at the location of the change

Answer 342

change blindness

Question 343

a procedure in which individuals are presented with two pictures and asked to determine the difference between them

Answer 343

change detection

Question 344

the phenomenon where people are unaware of clearly visible stimuli if they are not directing their attention to them

Answer 344

inattentional blindness

Question 345

the phenomenon in which engaging in a visually demanding task impairs the ability to detect auditory stimuli

Answer 345

inattentional deafness

Question 346

a theory that suggests a two-stage process where preattentive processing analyzes an object’s features independently and focused attention combines these features to form perceptions of whole objects

Answer 346

feature integration theory (FIT)

Question 347

the idea that different areas of the brain are specialized for the perception of other qualities

Answer 347

multidimensional nature of experience

Question 348

the ability to focus consciousness on specific stimuli and tune out others, often illustrated through a spotlight analogy

Answer 348

selective attention

Question 349

the process of scanning a display to locate a specific target

Answer 349

visual search

Question 350

a cognitive retraining program addressing implicit attention biases, which are known to cause anxiety symptoms. Individuals undergo repetitive training to shift attention from negative to neutral or positive stimuli

Answer 350

attention bias modification (ABM)

Question 351

the development of computer systems capable of performing tasks that usually require human intelligence, such as visual perception, speech recognition, decision-making, and language translation

Answer 351

artificial intelligence (AI)

Question 352

a person’s support for a particular viewpoint becomes stronger when presented with facts opposing that viewpoint; this error occurs when a person holds to their beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence

Answer 352

backfire effect

Question 353

the tendency to judge the validity of a syllogism based on whether or not the conclusion is believable rather than following logical rules

Answer 353

belief bias

Question 354

selectively looking for information that conforms to a hypothesis and overlooking information that argues against it; this error occurs when there is a narrow focus only on confirming information

Answer 354

confirmation bias

Question 355

an intervention targeting cognitive deficits (attention, memory, executive function, social cognition, or metacognition) using scientific learning principles, to improve functional outcomes

Answer 355

cognitive remediation

Question 356

a theoretical approach to decision-making that assumes individuals are rational and, given all relevant information, will make decisions that result in the maximum expected utility

Answer 356

expected utility theory

Question 357

the idea that to test a rule, it is necessary to look for situations that would falsify the rule

Answer 357

falsification principle

Question 358

a type of cognitive bias where two events are associated, and individuals mistakenly believe they are related, even if there is no connection; illusory correlation often lead to the formation of false beliefs or stereotypes

Answer 358

illusory correlation

Question 359

the process of drawing general conclusions based on specific observations and evidence; suggests probable, but not definite, truths

Answer 359

inductive reasoning

Question 360

refers to advanced AI models like GPT-3, known for their ability to generate human-like text, solve problems, and reason about the world

Answer 360

large language models (LLMs)

Question 361

the larger the number of individuals drawn from a population, the more representative the group will be of the entire population; an error occurs when it is assumed that a small number of individuals accurately represents the whole population

Answer 361

law of large numbers

Question 362

tendency to generate and evaluate evidence and test hypotheses in a way that is biased toward one’s own opinions and attitudes

Answer 362

myside bias

Question 363

an interdisciplinary approach that combines psychology, neuroscience, and economics to study how brain activation is related to decisions involving potential gains or losses

Answer 363

neuroeconomics

Question 364

a decision-making strategy where individuals are willing to take risks and prefer uncertain outcomes over certain ones

Answer 364

risk-taking strategy

Question 365

a significant and transformative change or alteration regarding potential shifts in evaluating AI systems

Answer 365

sea change

Question 366

false or misleading associations in data that can lead to incorrect conclusions, mentioned in the context of benchmarks that may allow AI systems to be suitable for the wrong reasons

Answer 366

spurious correlations

Question 367

the tendency to do nothing when faced with making a decision, often sticking with the default or existing option

Answer 367

status quo bias

Question 368

as proposed by Sigmund Freud, represents the vast amount of unconventional, illogical, and personalized consciousness hidden from conscious awareness

Answer 368

subconscious

Question 369

a method of temporarily deactivating specific brain regions using magnetic fields applied to the scalp

Answer 369

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

Question 370

a game used in experimental economics to study human decision-making, especially in situations involving the fairness of offers and the responder’s willingness to accept or reject them

Answer 370

ultimatum game

Question 371

the psychological phenomenon in which individuals fail to notice changes in their environment, often demonstrated through experiments like the “person swap.”

Answer 371

change blindness

Question 372

individual differences in circadian patterns of activity that determine whether a person is a morning lark or a night owl

Answer 372

chronotype

Question 373

a biological rhythm occurring over approximately 24 hours, influencing the sleep-wake cycle and other bodily functions

Answer 373

circadian rhythm

Question 374

the tendency to maintain balance or an optimal level within a biological system, often controlled by the hypothalamus

Answer 374

homeostasis

Question 375

hormone released by the pineal gland, associated with the regulation of various biological rhythms and the immune system during sleep

Answer 375

melatonin

Question 376

the ability to focus consciousness on specific stimuli and tune out others, often illustrated through a spotlight analogy

Answer 376

selective attention

Question 377

a concept developed by William James that describes consciousness as a continuously moving, shifting, and unbroken stream

Answer 377

stream of consciousness

Question 378

a discipline studying how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have evolved over time as a result of natural selection

Answer 378

evolutionary psychology

Question 379

the regulation of sleep characterized by sleep rebound following sleep deprivation, where a sleep-deprived individual takes longer to fall asleep during subsequent opportunities for sleep

Answer 379

homeostatic regulation of sleep

Question 380

an organization that provides information on the benefits of sleep, including maintaining a healthy weight, lowering stress levels, improving mood, increasing motor coordination, and cognitive and memory-related benefits

Answer 380

National Sleep Foundation

Question 381

an endocrine gland that releases melatonin during sleep, influencing various biological rhythms and the immune system

Answer 381

pineal gland

Question 382

an endocrine gland that secretes hormones like FSH, LH, and growth hormone during sleep, regulating the reproductive system, physical growth, and maturation

Answer 382

pituitary gland

Question 383

the potential dangers posed by predators, which is one evolutionary hypothesis suggesting that sleep patterns evolved as an adaptive response to reduce the chance of harm during periods of darkness

Answer 383

predatory risks

Question 384

the phenomenon where a sleep-deprived individual tends to take longer to fall asleep during subsequent opportunities for sleep

Answer 384

sleep rebound

Question 385

the recurring patterns of sleep and wakefulness controlled by multiple brain areas, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, and pons

Answer 385

sleep-wake cycles

Question 386

the likelihood that a substance can be misused or lead to dependence

Answer 386

abuse potential

Question 387

a neurotransmitter involved in motor neurons and central nervous system arousal and reward mechanisms

Answer 387

acetylcholine

Question 388

conditions characterized by compulsive drug use despite adverse consequences, as described in the DSM-5

Answer 388

addictive disorders:

Question 389

a substance that facilitates the activity of a neurotransmitter system

Answer 389

agonist

Question 390

a substance that decreases pain; opioids like heroin and morphine have analgesic properties

Answer 390

analgesic

Question 391

a substance that inhibits neurotransmitter activitya substance that inhibits neurotransmitter activity

Answer 391

antagonist

Question 392

central nervous system depressants that affect the GABA neurotransmission system

Answer 392

barbiturates

Question 393

central nervous system depressants that serve as agonists of the GABA neurotransmitter system

Answer 393

benzodiazepines

Question 394

an opioid with relatively low potency, often prescribed for minor painan opioid with relatively low potency, often prescribed for minor pain

Answer 394

codeine

Question 395

psychoactive medications, including alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines, that suppress central nervous system activity

Answer 395

depressants

Question 396

a neurotransmitter associated with reward and craving, affected by stimulant medications

Answer 396

dopamine

Question 397

feelings of intense elation and pleasure, often sought by stimulant drug users

Answer 397

euphoria

Question 398

a neurotransmitter system affected by central nervous system depressants

Answer 398

gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

Question 399

medications causing profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences

Answer 399

hallucinogens

Question 400

focusing on a single target to increase awareness of the moment

Answer 400

meditation

Question 400

a state of extreme self-focus and attention, often used for therapeutic purposes

Answer 400

a state of extreme self-focus and attention, often used for therapeutic purposes

Question 401

a synthetic opioid used to manage withdrawal symptoms in opioid addiction

Answer 401

methadone

Question 402

a category of drugs, including heroin, morphine, methadone, and codeine, with analgesic properties

Answer 402

opioids

Question 403

changes in normal bodily functions, leading to withdrawal symptoms upon cessation of drug use

Answer 403

physical dependence

Question 404

substances that affect brain function, leading to altered states of consciousness

Answer 404

psychoactive medications

Question 405

psychoactive medications

Answer 405

serotonin

Question 406

medications, including cocaine, amphetamines, and caffeine, that increase overall neural activity

Answer 406

stimulants

Question 407

a compulsive pattern of drug use despite negative consequences, as defined in the DSM-5

Answer 407

substance use disorder

Question 408

Tulving’s subdivision of long-term memory divides it into three distinct types:

Answer 408

episodic, semantic, and procedural memory.

1. Episodic Memory: This refers to the storage of personal experiences and events. It’s like a mental diary, containing specific memories tied to times and places. For example, remembering your first day at school or a recent vacation.
   
   2. Semantic Memory: This involves general knowledge about the world, facts, concepts, and meanings. It’s not tied to personal experiences. For instance, knowing that Paris is the capital of France or that a cat is an animal.
   3. Procedural Memory: This is responsible for our knowledge of how to perform tasks and activities, particularly motor skills. Examples include knowing how to ride a bike, type on a keyboard, or play an instrument, often done without conscious thought.

Tulving’s theory emphasizes that these different types of long-term memory function separately and are processed differently in the brain.

Question 409

Broadbent’s filter model of attention includes three stages:

Answer 409

input of information, filtering of information through attention, and a processing detector which transfers information to a memory store.

Question 410

Broadbent’s filter model of attention includes three stages:

Answer 410

input of information, filtering of information through attention, and a processing detector which transfers information to a memory store.

Question 411

Parsing with dynamic grouping and heuristics means

Answer 411

that while analyzing a sentence, the parser adjusts how it groups words based on context, using shortcuts or common patterns to make decisions when rules aren’t clear or strict.

Yes, here’s an example:

Consider the sentence: “I saw the man with the telescope.”

•	Without context, it’s unclear whether “with the telescope” describes the man (the man has a telescope) or the action (I used a telescope to see the man).
•	A parser using dynamic grouping with heuristics would use context or common patterns to make a best guess about the correct meaning, like recognizing that it’s more common for people to use a telescope to look at something, rather than assuming the man had the telescope.

This flexible approach helps resolve ambiguity in real-time.

Question 412

Parsing with dynamic grouping and heuristics means

Answer 412

that while analyzing a sentence, the parser adjusts how it groups words based on context, using shortcuts or common patterns to make decisions when rules aren’t clear or strict.

Yes, here’s an example:

Consider the sentence: “I saw the man with the telescope.”

•	Without context, it’s unclear whether “with the telescope” describes the man (the man has a telescope) or the action (I used a telescope to see the man).
•	A parser using dynamic grouping with heuristics would use context or common patterns to make a best guess about the correct meaning, like recognizing that it’s more common for people to use a telescope to look at something, rather than assuming the man had the telescope.

This flexible approach helps resolve ambiguity in real-time.

Question 413

Broadbent’s filter model of attention includes three stages:

Answer 413

input of information,
filtering of information through attention, and a processing detector which transfers information to a memory store.