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Biochem 2 > Intro to Metabolism (Quiz 1) > Flashcards

Intro to Metabolism (Quiz 1) Flashcards

1
Q

What is metabolism?

A

-the sum of all biochemical reactions that occur in living cells
-the product of one reaction is the substrate for the next reaction (pathways or metabolites)
-several thousand reactions occur simultaneously in cells, but both the internal and external environment of the cell remains constant

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2
Q

Do we store high energy electrons?

A

no

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3
Q

What enzymes can remove hydrogens/ electrons from food or within the body?

A

oxidases and dehydrogenases

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4
Q

What “catches” hydrogen and electrons?

A

coenzymes

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5
Q

What are the major goals of metabolism?

A

for the cell to maintain and replicate itself for:
-energy that will be synthesized as needed (ATP, NADH, NADPH)
-making precursors to synthesize large molecules

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6
Q

Where does ATP hold its energy?

A

between the phosphates, at the phosphoanhydride bond

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7
Q

What are catabolic pathways? Are they exergonic or endergonic?

A

-they degrade large compounds into smaller ones
-they are exergonic bc energy is being released, so delta G is negative

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8
Q

What are anabolic pathways? Are they exergonic or endergonic?

A

-they synthesize macromolecules from simple precursors
-they are endergonic, which means they need energy to build, so delta G is positive

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9
Q

What are amphibolic pathways?

A

they function as both catabolic and anabolic pathways

ex: TCA cycle oxidizes acetyl CoA to CO2 and also includes intermediates that serve as substrates for synthetic pathways
-oxygen is the driving force of TCA cycle
-2 carbons will change to 2CO2 per cycle and generate high energy electrons like NADH
-this is catabolic
-molecules within cycle will be used to make glucose, AA, or fat, which this is anabolic
-both of these happen separately within reaction so this is NOT coupling, but rather amphibolic

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10
Q

What is the driving force of TCA cycle?

A

oxygen

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11
Q

What does amphipathic mean?

A

hydrophilic + hydrophobic

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12
Q

What does energy coupling mean?

A

catabolic reaction drives anabolic reaction and they happen at the same time

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13
Q

What is oxidation?

A

-loss of electrons and hydrogens

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14
Q

What is reduction?

A

-gain of electrons and hydrogens

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15
Q

What biochemical reaction is digestion?

A

hydrolysis- uses water to breakdown food into smaller pieces

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16
Q

Energy containing nutrients are only what molecules?

A

organic containing molecules

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17
Q

What are the 3 energy containing nutrients?

A

carbs, fats, and proteins

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18
Q

Does water have energy?

A

no

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19
Q

What chemical energy can we use?

A

high energy electrons or high energy phosphate

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20
Q

Can you use the energy released during digestion?

A

no

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21
Q

What are the energy depleted end products after catabolism?

A

CO2, H2O, NH3 (ammonia)

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22
Q

Any energy that cannot be used will turn into….

A

heat

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23
Q

Creatine- P is a ________________ molecule

A

substrate phosphorylation

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24
Q

T/F: ATP can be transformed to NAD, FAD, or CoA

A

true

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25
Q

What is the base in ATP?

A

adenine

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26
Q

What is the sugar in ATP?

A

ribose

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27
Q

What shape does the sugar in ATP have?

A

furanose

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28
Q

In ATP, the energy is released by the hydrolysis of the 3rd phosphate group with the help of ___________. After this 3rd phosphate group is released, the resulting ADP can absorb energy and regain the group, thus regenerating an ATP molecule; this allows ATP to store energy like a rechargeable battery

A

ATP hydrolase

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29
Q

When ATP transitions to ADP, what is the delta G?

A

-7.3 Kcal/mol (note: the exergonic part (negative number) always has to be larger than the positive/endergonic part for the reaction to work)

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30
Q

What is the bond between the sugar and phosphate of ATP?

A

ester bond

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31
Q

How many high energy bonds does ATP have?

A

2

this is because theres 3 phosphates and the energy is held at the bond between phosphates (the phosphoanhydride bond)

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32
Q

Is substrate level phosphorylation rare/hard?

A

Yes only 4 molecules can do it

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33
Q

What is substrate level phosphorylation?

test q

A

formation of ATP by the direct transfer and donation of a phosphate group to ADP

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34
Q

ATP can be transformed by the 2nd messenger molecule cAMP by what enzyme?

A

adenylate cyclase

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35
Q

T/F: ATP is found in DNA and RNA

A

true

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36
Q

What is the delta G when ADP transitions into AMP?

A

-5 Kcal/mol (note: the exergonic part (negative number) always has to be larger than the positive/endergonic part for the reaction to work)

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37
Q

Does AMP provide energy if it is broken down?

A

no

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38
Q

T/F: ATP gets generated after breaking down food

A

true

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39
Q

ATP gets broken down anytime the body needs energy. For what reactions does this apply to?

A

any anabolic reactions

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40
Q

T/F: NADH is an electron carrier

A

false, NAD+ is the electron carrier in this case!

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41
Q

What does the N stand for in NAD+ or NADH?

A

nicotinamide/niacin/ vitamin B3

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42
Q

What is the difference between NAD+ and FAD in terms of structure?

A

The base

for NAD+ its nicotinamide/niacin/ vitamin B3

for FAD its riboflavin/ vitamin B2

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43
Q

What is the sugar in NAD+ and FAD?

A

ribose

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44
Q

What is the difference between NAD+ and NADP+ in terms of structure?

A

There would be a phosphate attached to C2 on one of the ribose sugars

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45
Q

What are the 4 major electron carriers in metabolism?

test q

A

1) NAD+
2) NADP+
3) FAD
4) FMN

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46
Q

NAD+ is used in ___________ reactions

A

oxidation/ catabolic (strip H away)

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47
Q

What is the major form- NAD+ or NADH?

A

NAD+

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48
Q

NADP+ is used in ____________ reactions

A

reduction/ anabolic (take in H)

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49
Q

What is the major form- NADP+ or NADPH?

A

NADPH

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50
Q

What is FMN?

A

riboflavin mononucleotide
-same thing as FAD but its only 1 nucleotide

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51
Q

NAD+ can be converted to….

A

NADH + H+

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52
Q

NADP+ can be converted to….

A

NADPH + H+

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53
Q

FAD can be converted to…

A

FADH2

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54
Q

FMN can be converted to…

A

FMNH2

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55
Q

Which electron carrier is found in the cytoplasm?

A

NADP+ (the other 3 electron carriers are found in mitochondria)

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56
Q

Coenzymes can be divided into 2 groups. What are they?

A

cosubstrates and prosthetic groups

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57
Q

What are the cosubstrates in metabolism?

A

-NAD+ + NADH
-NADPH + NADP+

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58
Q

What are the prosthetic groups in metabolism?

A

-FAD + FADH2
-FMN + FMNH2

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59
Q

What 2 enzymes strip electrons of a nutrient biomolecule and transfer them to electron carriers?

A

dehydrogenases and oxidoreductases

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60
Q

What 2 electron carriers are free to move from enzyme to enzyme and are usually associated with soluble dehydrogenases?

A

NAD+ and NADP+

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61
Q

Which 2 electron carriers are prosthetic groups of the dehydrogenases that are found embedded in the mitochondrial membrane?

A

FAD and FMN

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62
Q

Where does galactose usually come from (think food source)?

A

lactose in dairy

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63
Q

Where does fructose usually come from (think food source)?

A

sucrose (table sugar)

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64
Q

What are the 3 energy carriers in food?

A

carbs, proteins, and fats

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65
Q

How many carbons are in glucose?

A

6

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66
Q

Carbs break down into….

A

usually glucose (but can also breakdown to form galactose or fructose)

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67
Q

During glycolysis, one glucose makes how many pyruvate?

A

2 (because pyruvate is 3 carbons and glucose is 6C)

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68
Q

Glucose, galactose, and fructose are all _________ soluble and will go to liver

A

water

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69
Q

What happens to galactose and fructose in the liver?

A

they will be converted to glucose

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70
Q

Where does glucose go after the liver?

A

blood and tissues

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71
Q

What happens to glucose once it reaches tissue cells?

A

it will be converted to pyruvate (glycolysis)

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72
Q

What carbs does the liver not like?

A

fructose and sucrose

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73
Q

Glucose makes 2 pyruvate which will then make 2 acetyl CoA. 3 questions:
1) What is this step called?
2) What is the pyruvate to acetyl CoA rxn called?
3) What enzyme is used in this reaction?

A

step is called pyruvate oxidation (happens in mitochondria)

oxidative decarboxylation reaction

uses pyruvate dehydrogenase to convert pyruvate to acetyl CoA

Note: pyruvate is 3 carbons whereas acetyl CoA is only 2, the 3rd carbon makes CO2 and NADH/FADH2 will also be generated

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74
Q

What is the substrate for TCA cycle?

A

acetyl CoA

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75
Q

What is the product of TCA?

test q

A

2 CO2 and high energy electrons (3 NADH and 1 FADH2)

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76
Q

What is the product of ETC?

test q

A

ATP and water

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77
Q

What are the 2 ways to create ATP?

A

ETC (major way)

substrate level phosphorylation (minor way)
-can be done with creatine-P, 2 molecules within glycolysis, or one molecule in TCA (this will become more specific later…)

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78
Q

What are the other names for TCA cycle?

A

krebs cycle or citric acid cycle

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79
Q

Acetyl CoA enter the TCA cycle and will make….

A

2 CO2
3 NADH
1 FADH2
1 ATP

This is only one round (1 acetyl coa will go through one round, but if acetyl coa comes from glucose then there will be 2)

80
Q

After TCA cycle, the high energy electrons NADH and FADH2 will go to ETC to transport electrons and make…

A

ATP (the H will change to water which is an oxidation reaction)

81
Q

What processes/cycles need to occur for glucose to be completely oxidized?

test q

A

glycolysis> pyruvate oxidation> TCA cycle> ETC

which will result in ATP+ water + 6 CO2

82
Q

Proteins get broken down into AAs for energy. How do AAs get processed and where do they go?

A

AAs will go to the liver and need to be processed

the amino group needs to be removed from the AA to be able to use AA for energy

the amino group of the AA will be cleaved and become urea

the remainder of the AA will become an alpha ketoacid

83
Q

The AA is converted to an alpha ketoacid. What does it get converted to next?

A

pyruvate (and then will follow the same steps as glucose version, which is pyruvate> acetyl CoA undergoes TCA> electron carriers go to ETC)

84
Q

Out of the 3 energy carriers in food what is the last resort?

A

fat

85
Q

Fat gets broken down into FAs and then acetyl CoA. How?

A

triglycerides (TG) will break down into a MG and 2 FAs for digestive purposes

then will be converted back to a TG and go to the lymphatic system

eventually the TG will go to blood and become a FA

FA gets converted to acetyl CoA (THIS IS CALLED BETA OXIDATION)
-this is where the beta carbon of the FA will be oxidized and become a double bond which forces acetyl CoA to be cleaved off because carbon likes 4 bonds

now we have acetyl CoA (which will then undergo TCA make NADH and FADH2 which will go to ETC and make ATP and water)

86
Q

What happens to the liver if theres excess glucose in the body and theres enough ATP in the tissues for energy?

A

the liver will store it as glycogen

87
Q

Glucose that is in the blood will travel to tissue cells. What GLUT transporter is used? Is it passive or active?

A

GLUT4 is a passive transporter

88
Q

Glucose> G6P> pyruvate

What is the pathway called that goes from G6P to pyruvate?

A

glycolysis

89
Q

When does pyruvate get converted to lactate?

A

when theres no oxygen (anaerobic glycolysis)

90
Q

Will lactate change to ATP?

A

no

91
Q

If theres too much glucose it’ll change to pyruvate > acetyl coa > fatty acids. What is the pathway of acetyl coa to fatty acids called?

A

fatty acid synthesis
-theres too much glucose so the body will store it in adipose tissue as triglycerides or fatty acids

92
Q

Glycogen breaks down to glucose when in _______ state

A

fasted

93
Q

Excess AAs will turn to…

A

fat

94
Q

Excess fatty acids will get stored as…

A

fat in adipose tissue

95
Q

After glucose enters tissue cells it will immediately become _____________

A

glucose 6 phosphate (this traps glucose in the cells bc remember it travels through a passive GLUT4 transporter)

96
Q

Glucose > G6P > pentose phosphates and NADPH

What is G6P to pentose phosphates and NADPH pathway called?

A

pentose phosphate pathway (PPP)

note: the pentose phosphate is usually ribose 5 phosphate which is used to create DNA and RNA, and the NADPH is used in reduction reactions and is an endogenous antioxidant bc it can provide H to reduce oxidative stress

97
Q

Which AA can turn into pyruvate?

A

alanine

98
Q

What is the gluconeogenesis pathway?

A

pyruvate > oxaloacetate (OAA) > G6P > glucose

gluconeogenesis means generate new glucose from non-carbs

99
Q

glucose > G6P > pyruvate > __________ > cholesterol

A

acetyl coa

100
Q

glucose > G6P > _________ > acetyl coa > ketones/ketone bodies

A

pyruvate

101
Q

glucose > G6P > pyruvate > __________ > fatty acids

A

acetyl coa

102
Q

Which 2 AAs can directly change to acetyl coa to create energy?

A

lysine and leucine (ketogenic AAs, they’re essential)

103
Q

In a fed state what happens to insulin and glucagon?

A

insulin increases, glucagon decreases

104
Q

Glucose gets completely oxidized by going through glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, TCA cycle, and ETC. What is the end product?

A

ATP, water, and carbon dioxide

105
Q

When theres enough energy in the body and glucose is still available what happens?

A

glucose gets converted to glycogen and will be stored in the liver and in the muscle

glycogen in liver can go back to blood as needed and is important for brain function to be able to think

glycogen in muscle tissues is important for muscular energy

106
Q

Do we store unlimited amount of glycogen?

A

no only some, the rest will turn to fat if theres still enough energy, glucose, and glycogen everywhere within body

107
Q

When theres enough energy and glucose, what happens if someone keeps eating?

A

glycogen has already reached its storage capacity, so the remainder of glucose intake will go straight to fat

108
Q

T/F: glucose can be converted into non-essential AAs

A

true

109
Q

When you eat AAs, what does it eventually become?

A

1) atp, water, carbon dioxide, and urea
2) tissue proteins
3) fats

110
Q

When you eat fats like triglycerides what does it turn into?

A

FAs and then eventually ATP, water and carbon dioxide

111
Q

What do FAs turn into if theres an excess?

A

fats

112
Q

What happens to insulin and glucagon in fasting state?

A

insulin decreases, glucagon increases

113
Q

In the fasting state, glycogen gets converted to glucose. This only lasts for 12 hours. What happens when the body starts to go into starvation mode?

A

muscles breakdown AAs and make glucose

TG > FA undergoes beta oxidation to make acetyl coa > atp

RBCs and the brain however, cannot use FAs for energy, so in this instance, TG > FA > acetyl coa > ketone bodies

114
Q

Can FAs make AAs?

A

yes

115
Q

Can FAs make carbs?

A

no

116
Q

Can AAs make FAs?

A

no

117
Q

Can AAs make carbs?

A

yes

118
Q

Can carbs make FAs?

A

yes

119
Q

Can carbs make AAs?

A

yes

120
Q

What is the futile cycle?

A

pointless cycle of catabolic and anabolic events

ex: synthesizing FAs and breaking them down at the same time (same thing with glucose or any other molecule)

121
Q

How do you prevent the futile cycle at the cellular level?

A

-target the rate limiting enzyme
-allosteric enzymes
-covalent modification
-alter enzyme conc. (create more enzyme)

122
Q

Which hormones can create more enzymes?

A

lipid hormones

123
Q

Can insulin and glucagon do allosteric regulation?

A

no, they’re too big, they cannot go into cell

124
Q

Can insulin and glucagon do covalent modification (form a covalent bond)?

A

yes with a 2nd messenger

125
Q

Which regulation mechanism is a feedback loop?

A

allosteric regulation

126
Q

How do you prevent the futile cycle at the level of the whole organism?

A

-NS and endocrine system
-fine tuning of cellular regulation

127
Q

What are the 6 enzyme classes?

A

1) oxidoreductase
2) transferase
3) hydrolase
4) isomerase
5) ligase
6) lyase

128
Q

What 3 enzyme types are found under the oxidoreductase class?

A

1) oxidase
2) reductase
3) dehydrogenase

129
Q

What is the function of oxidase?

A

remove H/ electrons (NAD+ can be used in this reaction)

130
Q

What is the function of reductase?

A

add H/electrons (NADPH can be used in this reaction)

131
Q

What is the function of dehydrogenase?

A

can add or remove H

ex: pyruvate will undergo an oxidative decarboxylation reaction with pyruvate dehydrogenase to make acetyl coa (this step is called pyruvate oxidation)

132
Q

What vitamins are required for oxidoreductase enzymes?

A

vitamin B2 (riboflavin) and B3 (niacin/nicotinamide)

vit B2 is used with FAD and FMN

vit B3 is used with NAD and NADPH

133
Q

What 3 enzyme types are under the transferase class?

A

1) kinase
2) phosphorylase
3) aminotransferase

134
Q

What is the function of kinases?

A

add phosphate

ex: glucose undergoes reaction with glucokinase or hexokinase to make G6P

135
Q

What is the function of phosphorylase?

A

breaks bond to transfer a phosphate (adds a phosphate)

ex: glycogen undergoes a reaction with glycogen phosphorylase to make glucose 1 phosphate (G1P)

136
Q

What is the function of aminotransferase?

A

transfer an amino group

examples:
generally AAs can cleave amino group to make an alpha ketoacid

alanine can remove NH2 and make pyruvate

aspartate can cleave NH2 and make OAA

alanine + OAA with an alanine aminotransferase can make pyruvate + aspartate

137
Q

What vitamin is required for aminotransferase reaction?

A

vitamin B6/ pyridoxine

138
Q

What 2 enzyme types are under the hydrolase class (can do hydrolysis reaction- use water to break bond)?

A

1) digestive enzymes
2) phosphatase

139
Q

What is the function of phosphatase?

A

remove phosphate with use of water to break bond (hydrolysis reaction)

ex: G6P will undergo a reaction with glucose 6 phosphatase to make glucose

140
Q

What are the 2 types of enzymes under the isomerase class?

A

1) isomerase/mutase
2) isozymes

141
Q

What are isomers? What is an example of an isomerase and mutase reaction?

A

isomers= same formula, different structure

G6P undergoes a reaction with phosphogluco-isomerase to make F6P

G6P undergoes a reaction with phosphogluco-mutase to make G1P (note: mutases will not change the entire structure like an isomerase, it’ll just change one piece like the location of the phosphate)

142
Q

What are isozymes? what is an example of an isozyme?

A

enzymes that catalyze the same reaction

ex: glucokinase and hexokinase

143
Q

What are the 3 enzyme types under the ligase class?

A

1) synthase
2) synthetase
3) carboxylase

144
Q

What is the difference between synthase and synthetase?

A

synthase= no ATP directly in the reaction

synthetase= ATP is in reaction

145
Q

What is the function of carboxylase?

A

add carbon

146
Q

What vitamin is required for carboxylase/carboxylation reactions?

A

vitamin B7/ biotin

147
Q

What are the 2 enzyme types under the lyase class?

A

1) lyase
2) decarboxylase

148
Q

What is the function of a lyase?

A

break bond

149
Q

What is the function of a decarboxylase?

A

remove carbon

150
Q

What vitamin is required for decarboxylase/decarboxylation reactions?

A

vitamin B1/ thiamin

151
Q

What vitamins are used in oxidation or reduction reactions?

A

B2 and B3

152
Q

Which vitamin is required for any reaction with a “CoA” present?

A

vitamin B5

153
Q

What vitamin is required for methyl donation?

A

vitamin B9

154
Q

What do glucagon and epi add to an enzyme for regulation?

A

phosphate

155
Q

Can fats become lactate?

A

no

156
Q

Which vitamin is required for FA biosynthesis?

A

niacin /nicotinamide/ vit B3

157
Q

Can pyruvate directly change to glucose?

A

no, but it can to lactate, acetyl coa, or alanine

158
Q

What is the name for the pathway that breaks down glycogen?

A

glycogenolysis

159
Q

What is the substrate in glycogenolysis?

A

glycogen

160
Q

What is the rate limiting enzyme in glycogenolysis?

A

glycogen phosphorylase

161
Q

What is the glycogenolysis pathway dependent on?

A

rate limiting enzyme, which is glycogen phosphorylase for this pathway

162
Q

Which hormone inhibits glycogenolysis by inhibiting glycogen phosphorylase by dephosphorylating it?

A

insulin does this with a 2nd messenger! This is covalent modification

163
Q

What is the active form of glycogen phosphorylase in the glycogenolysis pathway?

A

glycogen phosphorylase with phosphate attached

164
Q

What activates glycogenolysis pathway?

A

glucagon adding a phosphate to glycogen phosphorylase

165
Q

What happens to glycogenolysis if ATP goes up?

A

once theres enough ATP then the ATP will bind to glycogen phosphorylase as an allosteric inhibitor

166
Q

What happens to glycogenolysis if ADP or AMP goes up?

A

ADP increases= ATP decreases
AMP increases= ATP decreases

So ADP and/or AMP are allosteric activators (pathway will start up again when more ATP is needed & the rate limiting enzyme is activated)

167
Q

What do ATP, ADP, and AMP depend on in glycogenolysis?

A

enzyme concentration

168
Q

What regulation mechanism is used as an on/off switch for glycogenolysis?

A

covalent modification

169
Q

What regulation mechanism is used to “fine tune” glycogenolysis?

A

allosteric regulation

170
Q

What are 2 protein hormones we talked about in class?

A

insulin and glucagon

171
Q

When is glucagon secreted?

A

when you’re hungry

172
Q

Where is glucagon made?

A

pancreatic alpha cells

173
Q

What is the function of glucagon?

A

increase blood sugar (by breaking down glycogen to glucose so it can go to blood)

174
Q

What effect does glucagon have on glycogen synthesis?

A

inhibits it in the LIVER

175
Q

Where is glucagon found (think tissues)?

A

muscles and the liver

176
Q

What effect does glucagon have on glycogen breakdown?

A

activates it (glycogen becomes glucose so that it can enter the blood and increase blood sugar)

177
Q

What is the precursor for epi?

A

tyrosine

178
Q

Which hormone increases sugar levels when you’re stressed and works with glucagon?

A

epinephrine

179
Q

Where is epi made?

A

adrenal medulla

180
Q

What is the function of epi?

A

mobilize energy reserves for fight or flight response

181
Q

What effect does epi have on glycogen synthesis?

A

inhibits it in MUSCLES

182
Q

What effect does epi have on glycogen breakdown?

A

activates it

183
Q

When is insulin secreted?

A

after you eat

184
Q

Where is insulin made?

A

pancreatic beta cells

185
Q

What is the function of insulin?

A

decrease blood sugar (by pushing glucose into tissue cells)

186
Q

What effect does insulin have on glycogen synthesis?

A

activates it

187
Q

What effect does insulin have on glycogen breakdown?

A

inhibits it

188
Q

T/F: ATP regulates the rate limiting enzyme by noncompetitive inhibition

A

false

189
Q

What is the name of the pathway that synthesizes glycogen?

A

glycogenesis

190
Q

What is the rate limiting enzyme in glycogenesis?

A

glycogen synthase

191
Q

What hormone activates glycogenesis by removing a phosphate from glycogen synthase?

A

insulin does this with a second messenger (this is known as covalent modification)

192
Q

What is the active form of glycogen synthase in glycogenesis?

A

glycogen synthase without phosphate

193
Q

Which hormone inactivates glycogenesis?

A

glucagon

194
Q

Which coenzyme is most likely used in FA biosynthesis?

A

NADPH

195
Q

The reaction that converts a saturated FA to an unsaturated FA requires….

A

niacin

196
Q

The delta G for substrate level phosphorylation is always positive or negative?

A

always negative

197
Q

What is anaerobic glycolysis?

A

glucose to lactate

Biochem 2 (13 decks)

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