intro + axial skeleton

Question 1

types of anatomy

Answer 1

• macroscopic (gross): study of structures and their relationships
• microscopic (histology): study of tissue and cells
• developmental (embryonic): study of different phases of fetus development

Question 2

approaches in gross anatomy

Answer 2

• regional anatomy
• systemic anatomy
• surface anatomy

Question 3

anatomical planes

Answer 3

• coronal plane: front and back
• transverse plane: upper and lower
• median plane: left and right
  
  • saggital: equally divided
  • parasaggital: unequally divided
• oblique: any plane that isn’t the 3

Question 4

terms of position

Answer 4

• anterior v posterior: in front and behind
• superior v inferior: upper and lower
• medial v lateral: close and away from midline
• proximal v distal: close and away from root (for limbs)
• superficial v deep: close and away from surface
• ipsilateral v contralateral: same and opposite side
• internal v external: inside and outside
• palm v dorsum: palm and back of hand
• plantar v dorsal: sole and back of foot

Question 5

terms of movement

Answer 5

• flexion-extension:bend/decrease angle and straighten/increase angle
• abduction-adduction: move away and toward the midline
• lateral-medial rotation: turn away and toward the midline
• supination-pronation: palm up and down
• dorsi flexion-plantar flexion: bend to shin and root of foot
• circumduction: circular movements
• horizontal abduction-horizontal adduction: lift away and toward midline [deviate from anatomical position]

Question 6

layers of skin

Answer 6

• epidermis: waterproof layer of epithelial tissue (hair, nails)
• dermis: dense connective tissue (vessels, hair follicle, sweat glands)
• subcutaneous tissue / hypodermis / superficial fascia: connective tissue
  
  • cutaneous (= sensory) and superficial veins
  • connects skin to others
• deep fascia: dense connective tissue
  
  • wraps whole body (exception: face)
  • best in limbs (holds muscles)

Question 7

main body systems

Answer 7

• integumentary system:
  
  • skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, etc
  • function: protect against fluid loss, injury, infection
• skeletal system:
  
  • bones, cartilage, joints, ligaments, bone marrow
  • function: support and protect organs and body movement
• nervous system:
  
  • central (brain, spinal cord) and peripheral (spinal nerve, cranial nerve, ganglia)
  • function: collect and process information, and regulate function of other systems
• muscular system:
  
  • skeletal muscles and tendons
  • function: locomotion
• cardiovascular system:
  
  • heart, blood, blood vessels
  • function: distribute oxygen, nutrients, chemicals, and pick up deoxygenated blood and tissue waste
• lymphatic system:
  
  • lymph nodes, spleen, thymus
  • function: principle defence mechanism (absorb fat, monitor lymph and blood content)
• respiratory system:
  
  • airways, pleural membrane
  • function: gas exchange between blood and environment
• digestive system:
  
  • alimentary tract: liver, pancreas, etc
  • function: ingestion, digestion, elimination
• urinary system:
  
  • kidneys, ureter, bladder, urethra
  • function: blood filtration, water maintenance, ionic balance
• reproductive system:
  
  • ovary, uterus, vagina, testes, penis
  • function: produce gamete, fertilization, incubation, delivery
• endocrine system:
  
  • pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, gonad
  • function: regulate by releasing hormones (work with nervous system)

Question 8

body regions (main and subs)

Answer 8

• head (2)
  
  • skull
  • face
• neck (0)
• trunk (3)
  
  • chest
  • abdomen
  • pelvis
• upper limb (5)
  
  • shoulder (- shoulder blade)
  • arm (-armpit)
  • back
  • elbow
  • forearm
  • hand (- wrist, palm, fingers)
• lower limb (5)
  
  • buttock
  • thigh
  • knee
  • leg
  • foot (- ankle, toes)

Question 9

abdominal topographic regions

Answer 9

• nine region pattern
  
  • midclavicular lines (vertical)
  • subcostal line (horizontal 1)
  • transtubercular line (horizontal 2)
• regions:
  
  • epigastric region [1]
  • umbilical region [2]
  • hypogastric region [3]
  • right and left hypocondriac region [4-5]
  • right and left lumbar region [6-7]
  • right and left inguinal region [8-9]

Question 10

body cavities

Answer 10

• dorsal / body cavity
  
  • cranial cavity (- brain)
  • vertebral cavity (- spinal cord)
• ventral / anterior cavity
  
  • thoracic cavity
    
    • superior mediastinum (- trachea, esophagus)
    • inferior mediastinum (- heart)
    • pleural cavity (- lungs)
  • diaphragm
    
    • *barrier between thoracic and abdominal cavity
  • abdominal cavity
    
    • digestive system
    • urinary system
  • pelvic cavity
    
    • urinary system
    • reproductive system

*no barrier: can be called abdominopelvic cavity (organs can move between the 2 cavities)

Question 11

principle functions of skeletal system

Answer 11

• support and protection: of organs and soft tissues
• muscle attachment: muscles attach to bone and move bone at joints
• mineral storage: in bones (Ca, P)
• production of blood cell lineages: only in red bone marrow

Question 12

bone classification

Answer 12

• long bone: 2 ends and a shaft, where length > width
  
  • arm, thigh, leg, forearm
• short bone: cuboid shape
  
  • carpal, ankle
• flat bone: thin, flattened with mild curve
  
  • sternum, ribs, roof of skull, scapula
• irregular bone: lack specific shape
  
  • vertebra, facial bones
• sesamoid bone: grow within tendons to reduce friction between tendon and joint, and change direction of pull of muscle
  
  • patella (kneecap)- largest sesamoid bone

Question 13

axial and appendicular skeleton

Answer 13

• axial skeleton: forms skeleton of axis
  
  • skull, cheekbone, sternum, ribs, vertebral column (5)
• appendicular skeleton: forms skeleton of limbs
  
  • appended to axial s. by shoulder girdle and pelvic girdle
  • upper limb: humerus, ulna, radius, carpal, metacarpal, phalanges (6)
  • lower limb: femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsal, metatarsal, phalanges (7)

Question 14

the skull

Answer 14

• skull = cranium + mandible
• roof of skull called calvaria
• made up of neurocranium (= brain box) and viscerocranium (= facial skeleton)
• bones joined by sutures
  
  • except for mandible: articulates with temporal bone —> temporomandibular joint

Question 15

bones of neurocranium and viscerocranium

Answer 15

neurocranium (Pose Tf)
- parietal bone (unpaired)
- occipital bone
- sphenoid bone
- ethmoid bone
- temporal bone (unpaired)
- frontal bone

viscerocranium (Vz Mnm lip)
- vomer (unpaired)
- zygomatic bone
- mandible (unpaired)
- nasal bone
- maxilla
- lacrimal bone
- inferior nasal concha
- palatine bone

Question 16

Anterior View of Skull

Answer 16

• 5 bones: frontal, nasal, zygomatic, maxilla, mandible
• 5 bony cavities:
  
  • 1 oral cavity
  • 2 orbital cavities
    
    • has 3 major openings for passage for blood vessels and nerves
      
      • superior orbital fissure
      • optic canal
      • inferior orbital fissure
    • medial corner has bony channel to connect to nasal cavity: nasolacrimal duct
  • 2 nasal cavities
    
    • has 3 curved bony plates: superior, middle and inferior nasal conchae
    • anterior opening: anterior nasal aperture
    • posterior opening: choana

Question 17

Lateral View of Skull

Answer 17

main bones (7)
- frontal bone
- temporal bone
- occipital bone
- lacrimal bone
- zygomatic bone
- maxilla
- mandible

prominent bone features (6)
- external acoustic meatus
- zygomatic arch
- mastoid process
- styloid process
- condylar process
- coronoid process

Question 18

Posterior View of Skull

Answer 18

mostly occipital and parietal bones
- lambdoid suture: joint between occipital and parietal bones
- sagittal suture: joint between 2 parts of parietal bone
- external occipital protuberance: bony projection of occipital bone that marks border between the head and neck

Question 19

Superior View of Skull

Answer 19

• calvaria: dome shaped roof of skull
• frontal, parietal and occipital bones
• sutures:
  
  • coronal suture: between frontal and parietal bones
  • sagittal suture: between right and left parietal bones
  • lambdoid suture: between parietal and occipital bones
• junctions: sub-tissues at junctions for flexibility for skull to grow
  
  • bregma: junction between coronal and sagittal sutures
    
    • in infants: anterior fontanelle
  • lambda: junction between sagittal and lambdoid sutures
    
    • in infants: posterior fontanelle

fontanelle: membrane of connective tissue that allow skull to grow properly

Question 20

Inferior View of Skull

Answer 20

main bones (6)
- maxilla
- palatine
- sphenoid bone
- vomer
- temporal bone
- occipital bone

bony structures
- hard palate: formed by maxilla and palatine bones
- pterygoid process: of the sphenoid bone
- choana: posterior nasal opening, separated by vomer
- styloid process: of the temporal bones
- mastoid process: of the temporal bones
- occipital condyle: articulates with Ci
- foramen magnum: of the occipital bone

Question 21

Cranial Fossas

Answer 21

• anterior cranal fossa: frontal and sphenoid
• middle cranial fossa: sphenoid and temporal
  
  • important landmark: hypophyseal fossa - houses the pituitary gland
• posterior cranial fossa: occipital

Question 22

Cranial Nerves

Answer 22

• 1: olfactory nerve, cribriform plate
• 2: optic nerve, optic canal
• 3: occulomotor, superior orbital fissure
• 4: trochlear nerve, superior orbital fissure
• 5: trigeminal nerve
  
  • V1: ophtalmic nerve, superior orbital fissure
  • V2: maxillary division, rotundum foramen
  • V3: mandibular division, ovale foramen
• 6: abducens nerve, superior orbital fissure
• 7: facial nerve, internal acoustic meatus
• 8: vestibulocochlear nerve, internal acoustic meatus
• 9: glossopharyngeal nerve, jugular foramen
• 10: vagus nerve, jugular foramen
• 11: accessory nerve, jugular foramen
• 12: hypoglossal nerve, hypoglossal canal

Question 23

The Spine

Answer 23

• spine = vertebrate (3/4) + intervertebrate discs (1/4)
• cervical (7), thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacral (5 fused), coccyx (4-5 fused)
  
  • thoracic and sacral are primary curvatures - concave anteriorly
  • cervical and lumbar are secondary curvatures - convex anteriorly
    
    • develop when baby holds head up, and starts to walk
• abnormalities:
  
  • kyphosis: thoracic curves exaggeratedly
  • lordosis: cervical and lumbar curve forward
  • scoliosis: curved laterally

Question 24

Typical Vertebra

Answer 24

• body: gets bigger the lower it goes to support body weight
• vertebral arch:
• vertebral foramen: forms vertebral canal that houses spinal cord, will cause herniated disk if disks go through foramen
• pedicles: forms vertebral arch
• lamina: forms vertebral arch
• spinous process
• transverse process: extend from junction between pedicle and lamina
• articular process and facets: superior attaches to inferior of vertebrate above, inferior attaches to superior of vertebrate below

Question 25

Typical and Atypical Cervical Vertebra

Answer 25

- typical (Ciii-Cvi), atypical (Ci, Cii, Cvii) - bifid spinous process - transverse foramen -- on each transverse process - Ci (atlas): - *atlantoaxis joint:* between Ci and Cii for 50% head rotation - posterior and anterior arch - transverse foramen - lateral masses: (superior) attaches with occipital condyle, (inferior) attaches with Cii axis - superior articular facet: articulates with occipital condyle of skull (*atlanto-occipital joint*) - Cii (axis) - spinous process - transverse foramen - dens: articulates with anterior arch of Ci - Cvii - spinous process - longest, prominent vertebra (palpable through skin)

Question 26

Typical Thoracic Vertebra

Answer 26

- typical (Tii-Tix), atypical (Ti, Tx-Txii) - long slender spinous process - articular facets for ribs

Question 27

Typical Lumbar Vertebra

Answer 27

- short and thick spinous process - large body (senile changes: crowns which causes back pain)

Question 28

Typical Sacral Vertebra

Answer 28

- anterior side: - base sits at Lv - **pelvimetry**: measuring diameter of pelvis - **sacral promontory** - **sacral ala:** wing-like - **body:** smooth, concave - **anterior sacral foramen** (4) - **transverse ridges** - **apex:** free - **coccyx**: - posterior side: - **auricular surface:** ear-shaped - **sacral canal:** continuation of vertebral canal - *sacralization* (5 foramen) because Lv and Si fused - less common: lumbarization (4 foramen) - **sacral crests:** caused by fusion of pedicle, lamina, transverse process - **posterior sacral foramen** (4) - **sacral hiatus:** lamina of Lv failed to fuse and leaves opening

Question 29

Sternum

Answer 29

- flat-shaped bone - dagger shape: - manubrium - body: articular surfaces with ribii - ribvii - xiphoid process: articulates with body at *xiphisternal joint*, which articualtes with 7th costal cartilage - jugular notch: above superior side of manubrium - sternum angle: angle between manubrium and body - where rib ii articulates with sternum - at level of *disk* of Tiv-Tv

Question 30

True v False Ribs

Answer 30

- **True:** rib i - rib vii - articulate with costal cartilages - **False:** rib viii - rib xii - articulate with 7th costal cartilage, creating a costal margin - **Free:** rib xi - rib xii

Question 31

Typical Rib

Answer 31

- twisted flat bones - Head: articulates with articular facets on vertebra - **costovertebral joint** - Neck - Tubercle: articulates with transfer processes (rib i with Ti) - **costotransverse joint** - Costal Angle - Body - Costal Groove: houses intercostal veins, arteries, nerves

Question 32

Thoracic Cage

Answer 32

- protects heart and lungs - formed by costal cartilages, ribs, thoracic vertebrate, sternum - cavity is open from top and bottom, but bottom is 'covered' with diaphragm - important - *thoracic cavity* divided into 3 areas - *pleural cavity:* holds lungs - *mediastinum:* esophagus, trachea, heart - **superior thoracic aperture:** Ti, rib i, superior surface of manubrium - **inferior thoracic aperture:** xiphoid process, costal margin, Txii, ribxi-xii - covered by diaphragm