Intro and Carbohydrates Flashcards
Life depends upon chemical reactions and most all disease in animals are manifestations of….
Abnormalities in biomolecules
Biochemical pathways
Chemical reactions
What does homeostasis mean?
Self-regulating process by which biological systems maintain internal stability while adjusting to changing external conditions.
How is a relatively stable internal environment achieved?
Through the action of physiological reflexes and cell to cell communication and feedback loops.
What is the cell nucleus responsible for?
Genetic information, transcription and nuclear receptors
What is the endoplasmic reticulum responsible for?
Synthesis of proteins, lipids, stores Ca++, post-translational modifications.
What is the Golgi Apparatus responsible for?
Hint: Think 5 P’s!
Protein processing, post-translational modifications, polysaccharide synthesis, phosphorylation, packaging of proteins for transport
What is the Mitochondria responsible for?
Oxidation of carbohydrates and lipids
What do lysosomes do?
Digest macromolecules
What are peroxisomes responsible for?
Oxidation of organic molecules such as peroxide to water and oxygen.
What do cells use energy for?
Maintaining structure, growing, dividing, transporting substances and changing shape.
What is cellular metabolism?
Transfer and utilization of energy in biological systems.
What happens if energy metabolism is blocked?
Cells die instantly
What things are key to cellular metabolism?
Glycolysis, Citric (TCA)/Kreb’s Cycle, electron transport chain (ETC), NADH, FADH2
Stable energy-carrier molecule is composed of what?
Adenine (nitrogenous base), Ribose (sugar) and 3 phosphate radicals.
What happens when ATP releases its energy?
A phosphoric acid radical is split away and ADP is formed.
What is released energy used for in the cell?
Transport, enzyme activity, muscle contraction
What are some energy sources in living organisms?
Glucose, fatty acids, amino acids, ketone bodies, volatile fatty acids
What are ketone bodies?
Water soluble compounds containing ketone groups that are produced from fatty acids by the liver.
What do ALL cells have?
DNA, Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, Ribosomes
In what cells is DNA linear?
Eukaryotes
In what cells is DNA circular?
Prokaryotes
What cells do not have cell walls?
Animal cells
ATP is made during what process?
Cellular respiration
How does the cell maintain its shape?
Cytoskeleton
What makes up the cytoskeleton?
Microfilaments and microtubules
What is the control center of the cell?
Nucleus
What does DNA determine?
What the cell will do and how it will do it.
What is Chromatin and what is its primary function?
The tangled, spread out form of DNA found in the nuclear membrane. Primary function is to package DNA molecules into more compact form.
Where is DNA found in Prokaryotes?
DNA floats freely in the nucleoid, the central region.
What is the endoplasmic reticulum?
It is the membrane enclosed pathway that is used for transporting materials (such as proteins) synthesized by ribosomes.
What happens to proteins as they move through the Golgi Apparatus?
As proteins move through the GA they are customized into usable forms by folding the proteins or adding lipids or carbohydrates.
Where is water stored in plant cells?
Vacuole
What does the lysosome do in animal cells?
It takes in damaged cells and has enzymes which break down cellular debris.
Where are ribosomes made?
In the nucleolus of the nucleus
What are the key players in cellular metabolism?
Glycolysis
Citric Acid Cycle (TCA or Krebs)
Electron transport chain
Metabolic intermediates- NADH, FADH2
What are the products of glucose oxidation?
ATP, H2O, CO2
What makes up ATP?
Adenine (nitrogenous base)
Ribose (Sugar)
Three phosphate radicals
What does ATP become when it releases energy?
It becomes ADP
What is the energy released from ATP used for in the cell?
It is used for transport, enzyme activity and muscle contraction
What 5 things can form ATP?
Glucose, fatty acids, amino acids, ketone bodies, volatile fatty acids
In what form do animals store energy?
Glycogen
Where is glycogen stored?
Muscle and liver
What are the most abundant organic molecules in nature?
Carbohydrates (saccharides)
What is the structure called if a carbonyl is attached to the end of a saccharide chain?
Aldehyde
What is it called if a carbonyl group is attached between saccharides?
Keto group
What is a carbonyl?
Carbon double bonded to oxygen
Alpha and beta isomers are determined by what?
The position of the carbon that carries the aldehyde/keto group.
What are the 2 parts of enatiomers?
D (right side) and L (left side)
Most sugars found in nature are what kind of isomers?
D-isomers
What enzymes are capable of interconverting D and L isomers?
Isomerases
What bonds link sugars?
Glycosidic bonds
Oligosaccharides
3-10 monosaccharides
Polysaccharides
more than 10 monosaccharides
Lactose is made up of…
Galactose and glucose
Sucrose is made up of…
Glucose and fructose
Maltose is made up of…
glucose x 2
Name 3 important polysaccharides
Branched glycogen, starch and cellulose
What are 2 subgroups of starch?
Plant amylose and amylopectin
What subunit is starch and glycogen?
alpha-glucose
What subunit is cellulose?
Beta-glucose
What polysaccharides are branched?
Amylopectin and Glycogen
How are carbohydrates attached to non-carbohydrates?
Via glycosidic bonds
What glycoside is created by bonding carbs with purine and pyrimidine?
Nucleic bases
What glycoside is made by bonding carbs and aromatic rings?
Bilirubin and steroids
What glycosides are created by bonding carbs and proteins?
Glycoproteins/proteoglycans
What glycoside is made by bonding carbs and lipids?
Glycolipids
What amino-sugar is one of the most common monosaccharides?
Glucosamine
Where is glucosamine found?
Cartilage, chitin
What is the process of breaking down complex nutrients into simple molecules?
Digestion
The process of transporting simple molecules across the intestinal epithelium
Absorption
Absorption cannot occur if food is not __________
Digested
In order for digestion to be useful, nutrients must be _________
Absorbed
What enzyme starts digestion in the mouth?
Alpha-amylase (ptyalin)
Where does carbohydrate digestion mainly occur?
Small intestine
What breaks glycosidic bonds?
Pancreatic and enterocyte hydrolases (glycosidases)
What is the final product of carbohydrate digestion?
Monosaccharides - glucose, fructose, galactose
Monosaccharides are absorbed by…
Enterocytes
Disaccharides can not be absorbed during…
Digestion
Mammals generally do not have the enzymes necessary to break down what?
Cellulose
Where does the final digestive process and absorption occur?
Mucosal lining- duodenum and jejunum
What starts digestion?
Salivary amylase
Further digestion of carbohydrates is achieved by?
Pancreatic enzymes (lumen of small intestine)
Digestion is finished by what 4 enzymes found in the intestinal mucosa?
Maltase, isomaltase, lactase and sucrase
Absorption of carbohydrates (monosaccharides) takes place where?
Duodenum and upper jejunum by SGLT1 and GLUT 5 and 2
