Intro Flashcards
Psychology (4)
A study of one of the existential wonders: the psyche and the mind of the person capable of:
- initiating, controlling, and freely, consciously choosing the meaningful actions
- insightful introspection in the mental reality (thoughts, feelings, desires, selfhood)
- insightful orientation in the mental qualities of other people (empathy,
compassion)
- contemplating the transcendent dimensions of human existence.
!!BEYOND BEHAVIOR!!
Idiographic approach/view of the human person
Description and analysis of a unique, specific individual,
-> e.g. Lady Macbeth, Don Quixote or Ms. Anna O. (Freud’s anamnesis)
-> clinical psychologists
=> psychology as a CLINICAL PRACTICE
Nomothetic approach/view of the human person
Description and analysis of human beings in general,
-> e.g. Freudian description of people suffering from conversion hysteria.
-> typical for theorists, scientific generalizations about humans…
=> psychology as a DISCIPLINE OF SCIENCE
The interpretations of history are prone to biases of: (5)
(1) Assumed paradigm (a set of axioms accepted in a preferred theory)
(2) Ideological indoctrination, political correctness, conformism, auto-censorship
(3) Assumed dogma (a set of beliefs based on authority)
(4) False myths and irrational prejudices
(5) Presentism
Dogmatic interpretation
Based on authority, myth, social pressure, prejudices, beliefs, ideology, auto-censorship
-> Inclined to lay down principles as incontrovertibly true.
(VS PARADIGMATIC: based on knowledge, axioms, preferences, preconceptions, expectations, theoretical preferences)
Presentism def
Bias, a tendency to interpret and judge past events or concepts from the point of view popular and accepted presently (here and now).
Historicism def
Way of viewing and interpreting past events and
concepts in their historical context (Zeitgeist & Ortgeist: then and there).
UNBIASED APPROACH
Who or what makes historical facts, events or concepts happen? (4 approaches)
(1) Zeitgeist/Ortgeist (Hegel!)
(2) Special person
(3) Cycles
(4) Random
Zeitgeist def
Spirit (mentality) of the TIMES: climate of opinion, mentality of the epoch
Ortgeist def
Spirit (mentality) of the PLACE, region, country, community
Special person approach
An extraordinary individual who makes history unique.
Cyclical Repetitions approach
Assumes that everything in history repeats itself: the political, economic, social, and artistic trends as well as the philosophical and scientific concepts reappear in a new form or under a new label.
-> War vs Peace, Poverty vs Richness…
Randomness approach
Political, social, artistic, and scientific events happen by chance: cannot be predicted. Nothing and nobody makes history, “history makes itself”.
Why do we need the knowledge of history? (6)
(1) To learn from the past and avoid repeating the same errors
(2) To respect our roots and protect the sense of belonging (identity)
(3) To understand the transient preliminary value of a theory or concept
(4) To avoid arrogance based on presentism
(5) To preserve a respectful attitude towards the ancestral views and traditions
(6) Clinical professionals collect the patient’s past to write and analyze the anamnesis
Who wrote the term “psychology” for the first time?
Christian monk from Split, Croatia, Marko Marulič (16th century)
Explain the chronology of the word “psychology” (8)
(1) Christian monk from Split, Croatia, Marko Marulič (16th century).
(2) German humanist Johannes Thomas Freigius (16th c.)
(3) German humanist Rudolph Goclenius or Goeckel (16th c.)
(4) - The term “psychology” was replaced by “pneumology” in the 17th c.
(5) “Psychology” was re-introduced by Christian Wolff in 18th c.
(6) 1879!!!!! Wilhelm Wundt: psychology as an independent discipline of science
(7) John Watson tries to replace “psychology” with “behaviourism”
(8) Albert Bandura restores psychology as a science of mental processes
The historical roots of psychological concepts (6)
(1) Ancestral thoughts on mechanisms of action (anthropomorphism, animism, magic)
(2) Mythology
(3) Religion
(4) Philosophy
(5) Anthropology, archaeology
(6) Medical discoveries and neuroscience
Basic axioms of science (3)
(1) There is a real universe (ontology)
(2) The elements of the universe are lawfully and coherently interdependent (determinism)
(3) The universe is knowable and we can learn it (epistemology)
Science is an endless process of… (4)
(1) Collecting the data
(2) Investigating the relationships
(3) Formulating the conclusions: hypotheses & models
(4) Verifying and modifying them
Classic scientific axioms assume harmony, consistency & predictability as one of science’s objectives. Yet, such thinkers reject that explanation. WHO?
Isaac Newton, August Compte
Newton’s pov on science’s objective
Newton said it was not necessary to explain. Sufficient when scientists provide measurable coincidences of two measurable facts.
-> Scientific laws as mathematical summaries of observations
August Compte’s pov on objectives of science
Methodological positivism: focus on measurable facts and avoid the temptation to formulate a causal explanation.
Axiom def
Something that doesn’t require proof
To what mathematical function can we compare scientific discoveries to?
Asymptotic curve: never-ending process of improving our understanding of the universe.
Objectives of scientific inquiry (4)
Describe, Predict, Control, and (perhaps?) Explain.
The observational or correlational statements are not about the cause, but only _______.
coincidences
A single “cause” or many causes? - What would Aristotle say?
Multifactorial approach. 4 types of causes: material & formal (antecedent conditions), efficient (immediate), and final (teleological)
Aristotle: Material cause
A type of material -> Domino is produced in such a way that all elements are from the same material → domino effect doesn’t work if diff materials.
Aristotle - Formal cause
The shape of its pieces
Aristotle - Efficient cause
An impact of a piece onto another - Somebody has to start pushing the first piece of domino.
(why?)
Aristotle - Final case
A purpose, an intention
A single “cause” or many causes? Multifactorial approach in psychology
R as a single reaction depending on
many cofactors: S (stimulus), A (antecedent experience), V (visceroception), P (personality)
&
B as a behavioural style depending on personality traits
What questions does psychology share with philosophy? (3)
(1) Ontological questions: What does exist? Is the soul, psyche, and mind real?
(2) Epistemological questions: How do we know, and learn an object of cognition?
(3) Ethical questions: How should we behave to be happy, respected and loved?
Epistemology etymology
From the Greek episteme (”to know, to comprehend”)
Epistemology def
Sources of knowledge. How do we know what’s real? What are the tools and methods of examining reality & knowing it?
Ontology def
Attempt to understand the essence of the perceived world of objects.
What is real and what’s an illusion? What is the nature of reality?
Ontology etymology
Greek ὄντος ontos = of being
Ontological monism def
There’s only one reality, whether spiritual or material.
Ethics def
Moral principles that govern a person’s behavior or the conducting of an activity.
Ontological monism - materialism
Only material world is real
Ontological pluralism - Dualism (Theory of Interactionism)
Pointed at the pituitary gland in the brain as a spot where the physical human body mutually communicates (interacts) with the soul (Descartes).
Ontological monism - Idealism
Only spiritual world is real. The essence of reality is purely spiritual, and the sensory impressions of so-called material reality are merely illusions.
Ontological monism - Double aspectism
Material = spiritual (Spinoza) - the reality is BOTH, just depends on what aspect you consider
Ontological pluralism def
Assume more than one reality and treat them equally as true and worth studying it.
Ontological pluralism - Dualism
Cartesian dualism (Rene Descartes): Both spiritual and material reality have the same ontological status. Both are equally real.
Ontological pluralism - Emergentism
(Sperry-split brain research): Material reality + notion of a newly emerging configurational properties of the material components that acquire new meaningful existence. !New thing emerges from combination!
-> Sodium + Chloride (very toxic substances) = Table salt
-> Gestalt psych: Combining 2 elements ⇒ completely new thing
Ontological pluralism - Interventionism
(Nicolas Malebranche): Only God, who created both material & spiritual reality, could control them.
-> Instead of the pineal gland, God constantly intervenes between body and mind, matter and spirit (against Descartes)
Ontological pluralism - Attributive pluralism
Linguistic category as an ontological criterion. Things exist because we know them and label them.
What are the 3 different types of ontological monism?
(1) Materialism
(2) Idealism
(3) Double aspectism
What are all the types of ontological monism materialism?
(1) atomism
(2) behaviourism
(3) epiphenomenalism
What are all the types of ontological monism idealism?
(1) theory of pure forms
(2) subjective empiricism
(3) monadology
What are all the types of ontological pluralism?
(1) dualism
(2) emergentism
(3) attributive pluralism
(4) interventionism
Atomism
Ontological monism. The universe is built of material atoms. Sees the human soul as a set of delicate atoms, nothing more. Democritus.
Behaviourism
Ontological monism. (Watson): Only brain. No psyche.
Epiphenomenalism
Ontological monism. (Titchener): Mental events are caused by physical events in the brain, but have no effects upon any physical events.
Theory of pure forms
Ontological idealism. (Plato): Only ideas exist.
Subjective empiricism
Ontological idealism. (Berkeley, Kant): It depends on individual observations.
-> We don’t know how this table looks like (only retinal object) - maybe if i was a wolfe, my image would be different.
Monadology
Ontological idealism. (Leibniz): Universe composed of immaterial/indivisible entities called monads. Fundamental building blocks of reality. God = supreme monad.
Dualism
Ontological pluralism
Emergentism
Ontological pluralism
Attributive pluralism
Ontological pluralism
Epistemology (8)
(1) sensory/empirical observations (Locke/Aristotle)
(2) pragmatic (practical actions)
(3) inductive reasoning
(4) deductive reasoning
(5) intuitive insight into inborn ideas
(6) subconscious emotional intuition (heuresis)
(7) meditative illumination (henosis)
(8) mystic and religious revelation (numinous instruction)
Epistemology - Theories of Intuitive illumination
(1) Intellectual insight (Plato): Eureka feeling.
(2) Henosis, immersion in the cosmic wisdom (Plotinus): Meditation, imagine in the cosmic knowledge of the divine.
(3) Numinous answer or instruction (Bergson): Numinous experience. Getting information from the divinity, when you contemplate.
(4) Message from the Collective unconscious (Jung)
Epistemology - Theories of Inborn ideas (4)
(1) Inborn soul (Socrates): At birth, our soul is already equipped with wisdom, knowledge and virtue
(2) Inborn categories of mind (Kant): We are born with categories of mind (aka: space, time, cause-effect).
(3) Instincts (Freud): We equipped with a knowledge of how to survive.
(4) Archetypes (Jung)
Epistemology - what’s the difference between Inductive and Deductive reasoning?
Inductive: observations -> theory
Deductive: theory -> observations
Two ways of concluding
A posteriori: observation -> conclusion
A priori: conclusion -> observation
Existential wonders (3)
(1) Nonorganic matter - out of nothing (ex nihilo)?
(2) Organic life - out of nonorganic mater? (who coded it? how life started to exist?)
(3) Psyche (awareness) & Mind (consciousness): out of what psyche started? how did it start?
The pressure of myths or ideology to falsely interpret the facts - Books
George Orwell - “Nineteen Eighty Four” and Aldous Huxley - “Brave New World”
-> forcefully imposed ideology through mass media/education
Wilhem Friedrich Hegel on Zeitgeist-Ortgeist approach
Believed in the existence of the “soul/spirit of the nation” and “spirit of the times”.
-> In both cases, he suggested that the society living in a specific epoch acts in the way consistent with its “essence” or “soul”.
-> The artists, thinkers and political leaders of the epoch are simply the embodiments of the spirit of the times.
Zeitgeist etymology
Zeit = kind (kind of opinion)
Geist = spirit
Ortgeist etymology
Ort = place in german
Geist = spirit
Who wrote “psyche” for the first time? in what book?
Aristotle in his book (in greek) Peri psyches.
-> original manuscript lost but translated by Byzantine monks, islamic/jewish scholars
-> Survived under the title “The Anima”
Marko Maruličhistory
First to say the world “psychology” (word in greek - rest in latin).
Croatia - Christian Monk.
Book didn’t survive the wars BUT we know about it from his friend that wrote his biography.
Johannes Thomas Freigius (not rly important)
In the Book: Ciceronianus -> In his description of human nature, used the term “psychology”
Rudolph Goclenius (Goeckel)
Renaissance. Used the term psychology quite frequently in an essay in Latin entitled “Ψυχήλογία, that is, on human perfection the soul and its origin.”
=> Invited several thinkers (philosophers, theologicians, lawyers, physicians…) to write diff chapters debating several essential psychological questions, such as: When the human being starts to exist? At the moment of fertilization or at birth?
“Psychology”replaced by “Pneumology”
Soon after Goeckel’s death, “psychology” disappeared from the literature. After his death, the term was replaced by “pneumology” (from greek - “breath of life”).
Christian Wolff
Reintroduced the word psychology in his books: Psychologia empirica (i.e. Empirical psychology) and Psychologia rationalis (i.e. Rational psychology)
Why “Psychology”replaced by “Pneumology”?
New term probably due to people’s preference for a more naturalistic concept.
Wilhelm Wund
1879: Established psychology as an autonomous domain of science (divorced from philosophy)
=> Then, pple wanted to change the name of psychology. Despite rapid progress in this new field, psychology was about to lose ascendancy to behaviourism
John Watson
Radical behaviourism, rejection of mental mechanisms, study of human’s reactions to stimuli.
“Psychology should be avoided”
=> Reductio ad absurdum = Reduct things to absurd
Albert Bandura
Then, discontent with behaviorism: not satisfied with the imission of mechanisms mediating between stimuli and reactions.
=> Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory (new approach to human behavior) restores the mental mechanisms back in psychology. Dissociate from behaviorism. Restored meaning of psychology
Rationalism
Epistemological way of attaining knowledge and making conclusions. Style of debating.
What’s the opposite of rationalism?
Empiricism
Rational inductive or deductive reasoning is the opposite of ______
Empirical, pragmatic, intuitive, or mystic reasoning.
Rational
Norm of discussing and listening to arguments and reasons (the ratio)
Irrational
Opposite of rational. Ignoring logical arguments and practical evident facts, using false analogies, personal prejudices and argumentum ad hominm.
Paradigm
Set of assumptions, values and methods that provide the framework within which scientists work.
-> Faire attention que ça devienne pas dogmatic
Components of a paradigm (2)
(1) Disciplinary matrix of axioms (unquestionable set of assumptions) - e.g. Freux & unconscious
(2) Shared exemplars of methods - e.g. dream analysis/free association…
