Interest groups Flashcards
Interest groups
An organised group whose members hold similar beliefs and actively pursue ways to influence the gov. AKA PGs
When are they particularly crucial in providing opportunities for participation
Between elections
Why do IGs take on added importance in the US political system
Due to their participatory culture and open form of gov. They also benefit from a weak and fragmented party system and from election campaigns that tend to be issue based rather than merely party based
Define ‘access points’
The places or institutions that IGs can go to to exert influence. They can include federal gov departments and congressional committees, individual legislators and the courts
What is the debate amongst academics about IGs
How far, if at all, they promote and reflect democracy
What are the two competing terms academics have come up with to classify IGs
Pluralism and elitism
What is pluralism
Theory that political power does not simply rest with the governing power or the electorate, but is widely distributed among groups representing different interests. Focuses on how power and influence are distributed within the political process. Power is viewed as something of a continuous bargaining process between roughly equal competing groups. Democracy is all about compromise between competing groups. In this sense, IGs promote democracy and participation
What is elitism
Theory that political power rests with a small group who gain influence through wealth, family status or intellectual superiority
Advocates say that the US is run by a small governing elite, wealthy and powerful individuals, and that as a consequence ordinary Americans have very little control over how they are governed and who governs them. According to this theory, powerful IGs have a stranglehold on power and decision making, thereby undermining democracy
What levels of gov do IGs operate at
All of them; state, local and federal - seeking to bring their influence on all three branches
Give some examples of sectional groups
American Bar Association
US Chamber of Commerce (representing business and trade)
Examples of causal groups
NRA
National Organisation for Women
American Israel PAC
Who does the Chamber of Commerce represent
Thousands of different businesses across the US
Who do Labour Unions represent
A particular trade
Give an example of this
The United Auto Workers and the Teamsters, representing truck drivers
Sectional groups also include professional groups (such as the ABA). What are professional groups
PG organised to promote the interests of a particular profession or business. Normally represent higher status and higher skilled professions
What do intergovernmental IGs do
Lobby one level of gov on behalf of another
Give an example of an intergovernmental IG
The National Governors Conference
How do political participation rates in America compare to European countries
More likely to join, social, charitable, civil, religious or political groups, but less likely to join TUs. On they join, write, subscribe, phone, petition, protest, email and march more than citizens of most other states. Political participation is seen as a virtue in the US
The causal groups they join might be single interest groups such as the NRA. What are single interest groups
PG created in response to a specific issue in order to promote policies that they desire regarding this issue
Give some examples of ideological groups
National Organisation for Women
American Conservative Union
What are ideological groups sometimes referred to as
Policy groups
What are policy groups
An ideological group that campaigns on a wider range of issues
TTs could also be seen as another type of causal group. What do they do
Conduct research, write reports and articles for publication in leading broadsheets, publish journals and books, organise conference and attend congressional committees
TTs usually have an ideological slant. Give an example of a liberal TT
The Institue for Policy Studies
Give an example of a conservative TT
The Heritage Foundation
Most, but not all, PGs perform 4 basic functions. What are they
Representation
Citizen participation
Agenda building
Programme monitoring
Describe their function of representation
Provide means for US citizens to have their views represented and their grievances articulated. Important link between the gov and the governed. Provide an easy channel of access for ordinary Americans to voice their opinions. For many Americans, IGs will be the most important means through which their strongest views are represented
Explain why it is the case that PGs will often provide stronger representation for an individual than politicians or parties
Politicians will have many calls upon them, they have to contend with constituents, their party, the administration and more. Through a pressure group individuals can have their views represented at all levels of gov and in all branches. Offer a more specific form of representation than that provided by parties or politicians
What type of participation will citizens engage in when IG members
They will often write letters or email legislators, organise and attend marches or use social media to advance their cause
Why is the function of citizen participation especially important in the US
Lower turnout rates for elections compared to other Western democracies mean that it is important that alternative means of partipation that just voting and supporting candidates are on offer
Describe the function of ‘agenda building’
May attempt to influence to agenda of legislators, parties or bureaucrats to give priority to the interests of their members of cause. They may bring together different parts of US society to achieve a common cause
Give an example of IGs pulling together different parts of US society to achieve a common cause
A number of pro-life groups have worked together and got some states to pass ‘heartbeat bills’ severely restricting abortion access in that state. These groups have included Americans United to Life and Faith2Action, which have strong links to certain Christian bodies. Pro life groups have put pressure on R state legislatures in particular to introduce such bills, following the same or nearly identical wording, showing that these groups have been working together.
Give some statistics to show the kind of the success these efforts have had
From 2010-8 more than 400 bills were introduced in 41 states, substantially copied by the model bills introduces by these IGs, with 69 of the bills being passed into law
Describe the function of ‘programme monitoring’
IGs may scrutinise and hold the gov to account in its implementation of policies, to try and ensure that promises are fulfilled, policies delivered, and regulations enforced
How did programme monitoring occur after the 2002 BCRA
Studies were presented on the impact that the bill had had on campaign finance
How can programme monitoring be carried out through the courts
IGs such as the NRA and American Civil Liberties Union will sometimes bring cases to the courts, asking the judicial branch to monitor the effects of legislation
Give an example of this
It was the ACLU who brought the first legal challenges against Trump’s travel ban placing a 90 day ban on entry into the US from 7 predominantly Muslim countries
What are the two most important resources for IGs
Membership and money, with the two often being connected
Give some statistics to show how money is important for the NRA
In 2018 it had a total income of $412 million and by Sep 2020 had spend $9.2 million on campaigning to get Trump re-elected, including buying airtime for its TV ads, after they spend even more in 2016
What does the interest group EMILY’s List campaign for
The election of pro choice female D candidates
How are they an example of how money is important for IGs
It has raised around $600 million since its inception in 1985, with much of this being raised in recent years
What will significant funds allow a PG to do
Bring forward lawsuits to advance their aims
Pay for professional lobbyists
Participate in election campaigns
How can human resources be important too
Because when they are used effectively they can put pressure on decision makers through things like petitions and direct action
How many members did the NRA have as of 2018
5 million
Who enjoys more access points out of US and UK PGs
US PGs
List the 5 tactics of pressure groups covered in this section
Electioneering and endorsement
Lobbying
Voting cues and scorecards
Organising grassroots campaigns
Mounting legal challenges
Describe their role in electioneering and endorsement
Since the campaign reforms of the 1970s, considerable changes have taken place in the role of interest groups and political fundraising. These reforms encouraged the setting up of PACs and super PACs that could make such donations. Many of them are affiliated to interest groups
Give an example of a PAC affiliated to an IG
The NRA has its victory fund
How will IGs get involved in elections more directly
They often actively support or oppose presidential or congressional candidates on the basis of their positions on policy areas related to the group
Give some examples of this happening in the most recent presidential election cycle
In 2019 pro-life group National Right to Life endorsed Trump and in 2020 Biden was endorsed by the Coalition to Stop Gun Violence
Give some stats to show how lobbying is a big business
The total federal lobbying revenue in 2016 amounted to $3.1 billion. This figure only includes those figures that must be announced under federal law. On top of that clients spent hundreds of millions on grassroots lobbying, PR, consulting, strategic advice and many other forms of lobbying
Which groups tend to use direct action such as protests, sit ins and violence to publicise their cause
Groups with more politically extreme groups
What parallel criticism could we level at insider groups
That they have too much of a close relationship with gov and that this gets in the way of them properly carrying out their functions
What is the name of the single issue group we will look at as a case study
Susan B Anthony List
When was it founded
1993
Who was it set up by
Sociologist and psychologist Rachel MacNair
What was the group performed in response to
As a response to the success of pro choice group EMILY’s List
Who is it named after
On on the most prominent 19th century campaigners for women’s suffrage
Why is the suitability of this name in question
It is question how far Anthony’s opposition to abortion went
What do they work to do
Gain the election of pro life candidates, especially women
How much did they raise to support such candidates in the lead up to the 2020 GE
$10 million
How has the position of the group on the left right spectrum changed since its inception
Initially set up as a bipartisan movement. MacNair was a vegan and on the political left in alot of areas. She left the organisation after a few years and by the late 1990s it had become considerably conservative and R
How many supporters does its website say it has
840,000
Why was the group happy in 2020 despite this being a bad year for the Rs
Because there was a record number of 16 pro life women elected
How did their links to the R party become more evident in 2018
Trump addressed their annual Campaign For Life Gala, the first sitting president to do so
What is their ultimate stated goal
Ending abortion in the USA
Describe how they have been effective in achieving these aims
- 2022 Roe v Wade decision
- Heartbeat bills
- Strongly supported the nomination of ACB saying she had the ‘perfect combination’ of attributes for the role
- Federal gov funding to Planned Parenthood has been cut
- Ending the use of America’s foreign aid budget for abortion services overseas
- R candidates have to adopt a pro life stance
- Contributed to the drift to the socially conservative right amongst the R party
Why did environmental issues become important in late 19th century America
Due to industrialisation and westward expansion
What example of a policy group will we examine in this chapter
Sierra Club
Who was Sierra Club founded by
John Muir
When was it founded
1892
How many members does its website claim it has
3.8 million
Give a statistic to show how widespread its support is
They are active in nearly every congressional district
What were they instrumental in securing the preservation of
USA’s second national park, Yosemite in California
What kind of things does it oppose
- Coal and nuclear power, preferring greener alternatives
- Fracking
- Building dams in national parks
What kind of candidates will it endorse
Those who support its environmentalist agenda
Why will these candidates often be drawn from the D party
Due to the close ties between many Rs and the fossil fuel industry
Give some examples of Ds they have endorsed
Clinton in 2016 and Biden in 2020
What did their website proudly comment about their political influence in the 2020 election
The Sierra Club Independent Action and Sierra Club Political Committee has mobilised a grassroots movement that has swept the country since 2016, running their largest programs ever this election cycle. Nearly 35,000 Sierra Club volunteers have helped contact millions of voters in battleground presidential states, and house, senate and state races across the country. In total these volunteers have made more than 5.5 million phone calls, handwrote nearly 1.3 million letters and sent more than 20 million text messages to voters
Evaluate how much of an impact this will have had on Biden becoming president
Difficult to gauge how much of an impact this had. One of many factors. Arguably other factors such as COVID, the economy and racial justice will have had a greater impact. However, all this campaigning certainly would have helped the D cause
Which professional group will we look at as a case study
The National Association of Realtors
How is the NAR different from Sierra List and SBA List
Essentially non partisan and does not fit neatly into the left right spectrum. However, this does not mean that it is disengaged from politics altogether
Where was it founded
Chicago
When was it founded
1908
How many members does it have
1.4 million members and is the largest trade association in the USA
How does its website describe its mission and vision
Our mission is to empower realtors as they preserve, protect and advance the right to property for all. Our vision is to be a trusted ally guiding our members and those they serve through the ever evolving real estate landscape
What kind of services does it offer
As a trade association it offers a wide variety of services, such as training and certification. Also strives to protect the interests of its members, particularly given the rise of internet based estate agents
How widespread is its support
Given its membership and purpose, it has members scattered across the US
Why has the NAR had various anti trust law suits filed against it
New challengers in the market argued that it exercised something of a monopoly over the real estate business
How important is it
It is one of the biggest and most active lobbyists in the US
What has it had access to since 1969
Its own PAC
What does this PAC do?
Supports any candidates who understand and champion real estate issues. It is probably one of the most bipartisan major PACS in the country
Give a statistic that proves how bipartisan it is
In the 2019-20 election cycle, it raised $13 million, which was divided almost equally between D and R candidates
A majority of these donations went to incumbents. What does this perhaps indicate about their motivations for donating
A sign that trade groups like the NAR value good access channels to serving lawmakers
What kind of successes did it cite in its 2019 report
The reauthorisation for the National Flood Insurance Program
Reforming the home loans available to service veterans
Helped secure the 7 year re-authorisation of the Terrorism Risk Insurance Program
Aims of the NRA
Defending the Second Amendment: The primary goal of the NRA is to protect and preserve the rights of individuals to own and carry firearms. They advocate for the interpretation of the Second Amendment that guarantees the right of citizens to bear arms.
Promoting Firearm Safety: The NRA emphasizes the importance of responsible firearm ownership and use. They provide education and training programs to promote safe handling and storage of firearms.
Political Advocacy: The NRA is actively involved in political activities, including lobbying for legislation that aligns with their interpretation of the Second Amendment. They work to influence lawmakers and government policies related to firearms.
Educational Programs: The NRA provides various educational programs on firearms, shooting sports, and safety. These programs are designed for individuals of all ages and skill levels, including beginners and advanced shooters.
Protecting Shooting Sports: The NRA supports and promotes various shooting sports and competitions. They aim to preserve and expand opportunities for individuals to engage in recreational shooting activities.
Methods
Political Lobbying: The NRA is actively involved in lobbying at the federal and state levels. They work to influence legislators and policymakers to support laws and policies that align with their interpretation of the Second Amendment and resist those they view as restrictive to gun rights.
Public Advocacy: The NRA engages in public advocacy through media campaigns, public statements, and spokespersons. They aim to shape public opinion on gun-related issues and promote their perspective on the importance of the Second Amendment.
Educational Programs: The NRA provides a wide range of educational programs focused on firearm safety, marksmanship, and responsible gun ownership. These programs include training courses, workshops, and materials designed for individuals of different skill levels and ages.
Membership Mobilization: The NRA has a large and active membership base. Members are encouraged to participate in advocacy efforts, contact elected officials, and support candidates who align with the NRA’s views on gun rights.
Legal Action: The NRA often takes legal action to challenge laws or regulations that they perceive as infringing upon the Second Amendment. They may file lawsuits or support legal challenges to protect what they consider individual rights to bear arms.
Grassroots Activism: The NRA relies on grassroots efforts to mobilize supporters and gun enthusiasts. This involves organizing local events, rallies, and outreach programs to build a strong network of individuals who share common views on gun rights.
Media Presence: The NRA utilizes various media channels, including its own publications, websites, and social media, to disseminate information, articulate its positions, and connect with its membership and the broader public.
Make the case that the NRA is significant and influential
Defender of Second Amendment Rights: The NRA is widely viewed as a strong and consistent advocate for the Second Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, which guarantees the right to bear arms. It plays a crucial role in shaping public opinion and policies related to gun rights, defending what many see as a fundamental aspect of American freedom.
Political Clout: The NRA has a well-established and effective lobbying arm that works at both the federal and state levels. The organization is known for its ability to mobilize its membership base, encourage political donations, and endorse or oppose candidates based on their stance on gun rights. This political influence is often seen as a significant factor in shaping legislation related to firearms.
Educational Initiatives: The NRA is committed to promoting firearm safety and responsible gun ownership. Its educational programs reach millions of individuals, providing training and resources that contribute to a culture of safe and informed firearm use.
Grassroots Mobilization: With a large and engaged membership, the NRA has the ability to mobilize grassroots efforts across the country. This mobilization can influence local and state-level politics, creating a network of supporters who actively participate in advocacy, education, and community outreach.
Legal Advocacy: The NRA frequently engages in legal battles to challenge laws and regulations that it perceives as infringing upon the rights of gun owners. The organization’s involvement in legal cases has, at times, set legal precedents and contributed to the shaping of gun-related jurisprudence.
Preservation of Shooting Sports: The NRA has played a role in preserving and promoting shooting sports and competitive shooting events. By supporting these activities, the organization contributes to the cultural significance of firearms in the United States and fosters a positive image of responsible gun use.
Media Presence: The NRA utilizes various media channels to disseminate information, engage its membership, and shape public discourse. Its media presence allows the organization to communicate directly with its supporters and the broader public, influencing public opinion on gun-related issues.
Counter the idea that it is influential and significant
Excessive Influence on Gun Policy: Detractors contend that the NRA’s outsized influence on gun policy has impeded common-sense measures aimed at reducing gun violence. By opposing even widely supported initiatives such as universal background checks or restrictions on high-capacity magazines, the NRA is seen by some as hindering efforts to enhance public safety.
Resistance to Gun Control Measures: Critics argue that the NRA’s uncompromising stance on gun control has hindered the implementation of measures that could potentially reduce the prevalence of gun-related incidents. This resistance is seen as prioritizing the interests of gun owners over public safety concerns.
Connection to Polarization: Some critics assert that the NRA contributes to the polarization of the gun control debate by adopting a staunch and unwavering position. This approach, they argue, makes it challenging to find common ground and compromises that could address concerns from both sides of the issue.
Alleged Ties to Gun Industry Interests: Skeptics point to the perceived close relationship between the NRA and the gun industry, suggesting that the organization may prioritize the interests of manufacturers and sellers over the broader concerns of gun owners or the public. This raises questions about potential conflicts of interest.
Internal Controversies: The NRA has faced internal controversies, including allegations of financial mismanagement and leadership disputes. Critics argue that these issues have distracted the organization from its core mission and eroded its credibility.
Challenges to Gun Safety Advocacy: Some critics argue that the NRA’s opposition to certain gun safety measures, such as mandatory waiting periods or restrictions on certain types of firearms, undermines efforts to address the responsible use and ownership of firearms.
Questionable Educational Initiatives: While the NRA provides educational programs, critics question whether these initiatives are balanced and comprehensive. They argue that a focus on promoting firearm safety should be accompanied by a willingness to engage in conversations about the potential risks and responsibilities associated with gun ownership.
How do IGs lobby members of congress
They make direct contact with members of congress and their senior members of staff. On the website of almost any pressure group you will find directions on how to contact your member of congress along with regular updates on the status of relevant legislation going through congress
Why is it no surprise that they will also make contact with relevant congressional committees
Because congress does most of its work in congress
Why is it easy for them to lobby congressional committees
Membership of congressional committees is relatively small and also fairly constant, so lobbyists find it easy to build a close working relationship with the members. Committee staff members are even more accessible than their bosses
Give some examples of PG witnesses in congressional committees
In the SJC, there was a hearing 2016 hearing on protecting older americans from financial exploitation and AARP members served as witnesses (American Association of Retired Persons)
In the House Judiciary Committee there was a 2017 hearing on the state of religious liberty in America and the director of the Christian Legal Society’s Centre for Law and Religious Freedom served as a witness
Describe how they organise constituents to achieve goals
Attempt to organise constituents to write to, phone, email or visit their member of congress to express support or opposition for a certain policy
When is this most likely to occur
Just before a high profile committee hearing
Give an example of constituents being organised to achieve a goal
In Jan 2016 a united cross sector of over 1500 PGs representing organised labour and environmental groups organised a joint letter writing campaign urging congress to oppose the Trans Pacific Partnership (TTP)
Describe how they can achieve their ends by publicising voting records and endorsing candidates
PGs publicise the voting records and house and senate members, sometimes offering their own rankings. At election time they endorse supportive and oppose non supportive incumbents through fundraising and media advertising
Who do they look to maintain strong ties with within the executive
Relevant executive departments, agencies and regulatory commissions
How can this cause controversy
When regulatory bodies are thought to have too cosy a relationship with the group that they are meant to be regulating
Give an example of this happening during the Trump administration
The budget and regulatory scope of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was considerably reduced. This reflected the close ties between the adminstration and the fossil fuels industry, such as when Trump signed an executive order in 2017 instructing EPA regulators to rewrite key rules curbing carbon emissions and other environmental regulations. Trump was accompanied at the signing ceremony by coal miners and coal executives
What kind of presidential nominations do they take a big interest in
Judicial appointments
Give an example of an IG influential in SC nominations
The ABA evaluates the professional qualifications of nominees and this evaluation can play a key role in the senatorial confirmation process
How can PGs try and influence the courts
By bringing relevant cases before the courts
Give an an example of an IG that is very active in the courts
The ACLU, especially on issues defending the separation between church and state
Give some examples of PGs achieving their aims through the courts
In 2008 the NRA played a significant role in DC v Heller where the SC declared Washington DC’s ban on handguns to be unconstitutional
In 2012 it was the National Federation of Independent Business that brought the landmark legal challenges against the ACA - a case which made it the SC
In 2017, the ACLU fought a gender discrimination case concerning trans student rights in Virginia in Gloucester School County Board v GG
Make the case that interest groups are positive for democracy
Provide legislators and bureaucrats with useful info and act as a sounding board for legislators at the policy formulation stage in the legislative process. This is particularly important as few legislators in the relevant committees will have the expertise to frame such bills by themselves
They bring some order to the policy debate, aggregating views and channeling the wishes of clients and members whom they seek to represent
They broaden the opportunities for democratic participation. In a two party dominant system such as the USA, many citizens are inclined to support and get involved in causal groups that represent specific issues. Increase opportunities for representation between elections, as well as offering opportunities for minority views to be represented in the big tents of political parties
They can increase levels of accountability both for congress and the executive branch. Any failures to support key legislation or to fulfil campaign promises will be seized upon by interest groups and publicised to their supporters
Enhance the two fundamental rights of freedom and speech and freedom of association, both of which are embedded in the constitution through the BoR
What is revolving door syndrome
The practise by which former members of congress or the executive take up well paid jobs with lobbying firms, using their expertise and contacts to lobby their previous institution
Make the case that IGs are negative for democracy
The advice and research provided by interests groups will almost inevitably be one sided and seek to reinforce their own policy preferences
Not all interest groups are equal. Those representing wealthy business interests or powerful professional bodies are better resourced andenjoy more regular contact with lawmakers than those groups representing consumers or unskilled lower paid workers
Many pressure groups work through hired lobbyists employed by lobbying firms and high proportion of these lobbyists are former members of congress or former congressional staff members. This is known as the revolving door syndrome
Some powerful groups can effectively write the legislative measures that affect their business or cause. For instance, in 1995 the NY Times reported a story that a bill to weaken the Clean Water Act was written by a taskforce of lobbyists representing groups such as the Chemical Manufacturers Association
They may put the interests of a small groups ahead of the interests of society as a whole. Critics see this as IGs adding to a splintering/atomisation of US society
Some IGs especially outsiders, used direct action which others deem to be inappropriate. This criticism is raised whenever pressure groups use a degree of violence to pursue their ends and gain publicity
Describe the function of ‘citizen participation’
Offer opportunities for ordinary citizens to participate in the decision making process between elections. Many Americans seek a greater and more frequent means for participation than the occasional opportunity to vote. They also offer the opportunity to participate in a specific policy area the individual is passionate about
