Intensive Love letter recalls by Keim Flashcards
Sample or Population:
Statistic
Sample
Note: All SMALL letters (n, s, k, p) including statistic are sample.
Sample or Population:
Parameter
Population
Note: All SMALL letters (n, s, k, p) including statistic are sample.
Sample or Population:
Sampling interval (k)
Sample
Note: All SMALL letters (n, s, k, p) including statistic are sample.
Sample or Population:
N
Population
Note: All SMALL letters (n, s, k, p) including statistic are sample.
Sample or Population:
p (proportion)
Sample
Note: All SMALL letters (n, s, k, p) including statistic are sample.
Raw data from published research should be:
A. Destroyed B. Maintained for 1 yr C. Maintained for 5 yrs D. Maintained for 10 yrs E. Never should be kept
C. Maintained for 5 yrs
True or False:
Informed consent form and informed consent process are two distinct elements that complement each other
True
Problem: 40 individual wtih cararact; 80% uses coticosteroid. 96 total population. Among indviduals wout cataract 50% uses corticosteroid
What is the prevalence of cataract in population? A. 32% B. 42% C. 53% D. 75.8%
B. 42%
= (40/96*100) - population
Problem: 40 individual w/ cararact; 80% uses coticosteroid. 96 total population. Among indviduals wout cataract 50% uses corticosteroid.
Prevalence proportion of individual exposed to corticosteroid? A. 32% B. 42 C. 53% D. 76.8
C. 53%
32/32+28*100
Problem: 40 individual with cararact; 80% uses coticosteroid. 96 total population. Among indviduals without cataract 50% uses corticosteroid.
Previous proportion of unexposed? A. 22% B. 32 C. 50 D.80
A. 22 % = 22% (8/8+32*100)
True or False:
All research must include a procedure to obtain informed consent.
True
True or False:
Principle of respect: the capacity of an individual to decide on his own.
True
Which of the following is not part of vulnerable group?
Student
True or False:
The benefit that might come from the research are not known until the research is complete.
False
Gradual changes in the frequency of the disease.
Secular trends
A descriptive study design.
Case series
Snapshot of the health status of a community
Cross sectional
Best control group
Population-based control
The most frequently used source.
Hospital controls
Prevalence ratio
Cross sectional
Limitations of this study design is lost to follow up because the investigation is unable to trace the study participant over the entire study period.
Cohort
Can study multiple exposures and multiple outcome.
Cohort
Advantages of pop based case control:
Avoidance of bias arising from whatever selection factors lead an affected individual to utilize a particular health care facility or physician/
NULL should be:
1 (one)
When the investigator is interested to use rare outcome. He or she may use?
Case control
Temporal association between risk factor and disease refers to:
Cause and effect
Hurricane Katrina and cholera outbreak
Point epidemic
Exposure and outcome simultaneously
Cross-sectional
Average exposure than individual info
Ecological
Attributed Fraction Exposure can be determined
Case control
Measures disease association for case-control
Odds ratio
A normal probability distribution is an example of :
a. Hypergeometric distribution
b. Continuous probability distribution
c. Discrete probability distribution
d. Binomial trial
e. None of the above
b. Continuous probability distribution
Suppose that a group of 100 males aged 60 – 64 received a new vaccines in 1986 and that 5 out of them died within the next year. How likely are at least 2 out of 100 60-64-year-old males who received a flu vaccine to die in the next year?
a. 0.03443
b. 0.124917
c. 0.01111
d. 0.000051
e. None of the above
e. None of the above
This distribution is widely used because of its capacity to approximate other probabilities.
a. Binomial probability distribution
b. Poisson probability distribution
c. Normal probability distribution
c. Normal probability distribution
One of the most common laboratory tests performed on any routine medical examination is a blood count. The two main aspects to a blood count are (1) counting the number of white blood cells (referred to as the “white count”) and (2) differentiating white blood cells that do exist into five categories, namely, neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils and basophils (referred to as the “differential”). Both the white count and the differential are extensively used in making clinical diagnoses. We will concentrate here on the differential, particularly on the distribution of the number of neutrophils k out of 100 white blood cells (which is the typical number counted). We will see that the number of neutrophils follows a binomial distribution. Reconsider the problem above with 5 cells rather than 100 and ask the more limited question. How many possible combinations can we attain if the second and the fifth cells considered will be neutrophils and the remaining cells nonneutrophils given that the probability that any one cell is a neutrophil is 0.6? Based on the computation done by the biostatistician, the total number of combinations are 10.
a. True
b. False
b. False
The average zinc concentration recovered from a sample of zinc measurements in 36 different locations was found to be 2.6 grams per milliliter. The point estimate of the mercury concentration is 2.6
a. True
b. False
b. False
If you were to conduct a research in a slum community. Houses are not listed. The best sampling would be:
a. Systematic sampling
b. Stratified random sampling
c. Cluster sampling
d. Simple random
a. Systematic sampling
It assumes the equality of the members of the population to be selected:
a. Systematic sampling
b. Stratified random sampling
c. Cluster sampling
d. Simple random
d. Simple random
Stratified sampling Requires the computation of sampling interval
a. True
b. False
b. False
Non probability sampling includes the following except:
a. Purposive sampling
b. Haphazard sampling
c. Simple random sampling
d. Quota sampling
c. Simple random sampling
In a sample of 30 households from a population of 500, compute for the sampling interval, k.
a. 6
b. 0.06
c. 16.6
d. Cannot be computed
c. 16.6
When data are collected in a statistical study for only a portion or subset of all elements of interest we are using the sample
a. True
b. False
a. True
In statistics, a population consists of:
a. all people living in a country
b. all people living in the area under study
c. all subjects or objects whose characteristics are being studied
d. none of the above
c. all subjects or objects whose characteristics are being studied
In descriptive statistics, we study:
a. the description of decision making process
b. the methods for organizing, displaying, and describing data
c. how to describe the probability distribution
d. none of the above
b. the methods for organizing, displaying, and describing data
In inferential statistics, we study:
a. the methods to make decisions about population based on sample results
b. how to make decisions about mean, median, or mode
c. how a sample is obtained from a population
a. the methods to make decisions about population based on sample results
You asked five of your classmates about their height. On the basis of this information, you stated that the average height of all students in your university or college is 67 inches. This is an example of:
a. descriptive statistics
b. inferential statistics
c. parameter
d. population
b. inferential statistics
In statistics, conducting a census means making decisions based on sample information
a. True
b. False
b. False
In statistics, a representative sample is the sample that represents the result of the sample being estimated.
a. True
b. False
b. False
A statistician wants to determine the total annual medical costs incurred by all U.S. states from 1981 to 2001 as a result of health problems related to smoking. She polls each of the fifty states annually to obtain health care expenditures, in dollars, on smoking-related illnesses. The data being collected is qualitative variable
a. True
b. False
b. False
A summary measure that is computed from a sample to describe a characteristic of the population is called statistic
a. True
b. False
a. True
Which statement/s is/are true of a frequency polygon?
a. This is used for discontinuous data
b. This is used to determine the relationship between 2 quantitative variable
c. This is used for discrete variable
d. We are interested with measurement of area.
e. None of the above
d. We are interested with measurement of area.
In this distribution, the points above the median will tend to be farther from the median in absolute value than points below the median.
a. Skewed to the right distribution
b. Normal distribution
c. Skewed to the left distribution
d. None of the above
a. Skewed to the right distribution
Set of all possible outcomes
a. Observation
b. sample space
c. Event
d. Element
e. none of the above
b. sample space
Numerical or categorical data:
a. observation
b. sample space
c. Event
d. Element
e. none of the above
a. observation
Each outcome in a sample space
a. Observation
b. sample space
c. element
d. none of the above
c. element
Subset of a sample space:
a. Observation
b. sample space
c. Event
d. Element
c. Event
The following describes normal distribution, except:
a. Measurements tend to cluster around the mean
b. tails extend infinitely in either direction touching the x axis
c. Equality of the mode and median
d. None of the above
b. tails extend infinitely in either direction touching the x axis
Determines the shape of the normal curve, except:
a. σ
b. α
c. μ
d. None of the above is an exception
b. α
Object or a person on which a measurement is actually taken or an observation is made:
a. element
b. sampling unit
c. sampling frame
d. sampling population
a. element
A data set is a:
a. set of decisions made about the population
b. set of graphs and pictures
c. collection of observations on a variable
d. none of the above
c. collection of observations on a variable
An observation is the:
a. graph observed for a data set
b. value of a variable for a single element
c. table prepared for a data set
d. sample observed from the population
b. value of a variable for a single element
A statistician wants to determine the total annual medical costs incurred by all U.S. states from 1981 to 2001 as a result of health problems related to smoking. She polls each of the fifty states annually to obtain health care expenditures, in dollars, on smoking-related illnesses. Which one of the following is not a true statement?
a. The population is all U.S. states.
b. The sample is the same as the population.
c. The data collected are qualitative data.
d. Each state can be considered an element of the study
c. The data collected are qualitative data.
As part of a study on worker productivity, three employees (John, Mary, and Chris) are asked at the end of a particular work week to estimate how long, in minutes, their morning coffee breaks were on each day of that week. Which one of the following lists describes the elements, or members, of the sample?
a. Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday
b. 14.5 minutes
c. 15 minutes, 12 minutes, 11 minutes, 14 minutes, 16 minutes
d. John, Mary, Chris
d. John, Mary, Chris
A data set with a mean of 111.26, median of 112, and mode of 115 is:
a. Approximately normally distributed data points
b. Considerably skewed to the right
c. Having a 50th percentile of 115
d. Considerably skewed to the right
e. None of the above
a. Approximately normally distributed data points
If a sample space contains a finite number of possibilities or an unending sequence with as many elements as there are whole numbers, it is called a
a. discrete sample space
b. continuous sample space
c. Random variable
d. Sample space
e. None of the above
a. discrete sample space
If a sample space contains an infinite number of possibilities equal to the number of points on a line segment, it is called a :
a. discrete sample space
b. continuous sample space
c. Random variable
d. Sample space
e. None of the above
b. continuous sample space
A normal probability distribution is an example of:
a. Universal space
b. Continuous probability distribution
c. Discrete probability distribution
d. Binomial trial
e. None of the above
b. Continuous probability distribution
If two events A and B cannot both happen at the same time, which is/are true.
a. Events A and B are mutually exclusive
b. P(A B) = P(A) + P(B)
c. P(A B) =
d. All of the above
e. None of the above
d. All of the above
Let A be the event that a person has normotensive diastolic blood-pressure (DBP) readings (i.e. DBP < 90), and let B be the event that a person has borderline DBP readings (i.e. DBP 90 and < 95). Suppose that P(A) = .7, P(B)=.1. Let C be the event that a person has DBP < 95. Find C.
a. 0.07
b. 0.73
c. 0.6
d. 0.8
e. None of the above
d. 0.8
The 90th percentile is the value of the systolic blood pressure level, which 90% of non-hypertensive men have systolic blood pressure levels equal to or lower than this value in the normal curve. This means that to the right of this value belongs to 10% of the distribution
a. One cannot determine
b. Not necessarily true
c. True
d. False
e. None of the above
c. True
Below is the data taken from a screening test for HIV that was performed on a group of 100,000 people.
How many individuals are considered as having a true negative result?
a. 475
b. 4,975
c. 25
d. 94,525
e. 99,500
d. 94,525
Below is the data taken from a screening test for HIV that was performed on a group of 100,000 people.
How many individuals are considered as having a true positive result?
a. 475
b. 4,975
c. 25
d. 94,525
e. 500
a. 475
Below is the data taken from a screening test for HIV that was performed on a group of 100,000 people.
How many individuals are considered as having false negative result?
a. 4,975
b. 25
c. 94,525
d. 94,550
e. 475
b. 25
Below is the data taken from a screening test for HIV that was performed on a group of 100,000 people.
How many individuals are considered as having a false positive result?
a. 475
b. 4,975
c. 25
d. 94,525
e. 5,450
b. 4,975
Below is the data taken from a screening test for HIV that was performed on a group of 100,000 people.
The sensitivity of the screening test is the probability that the symptom is present given that the person has the disease
a. 0.95
b. 0.087
c. 0.99
d. None of the above
a. 0.95
Below is the data taken from a screening test for HIV that was performed on a group of 100,000 people.
The specificity of the screening test is the probability that the symptom is not present given that the person does not have the disease
a. 0.99
b. 0.99
c. 0.95
d. 0.087
e. None of the above
c. 0.95
When sensitivity is high, one can rule in the disease:
a. True
b. False
b. False
When specificity is high, one can rule out the disease:
a. True
b. False
b. False
Even when a test has a high specificity and high sensitivity, you are still going to get a high false positive rate if you are screening a large population where the prevalence rate of the disease is low (as shown in CASE 1-HIV). This would indicate that the false positive rate is not just a function of sensitivity and specificity but it is also a function of a prevalence rate of the disease in the population you are testing:
a. True
b. False
A. True
A group of surgeons and anesthesiologists wanted to investigate the relationship between type of anesthesia and post-operative pulmonary infection. They enrolled 215 patients, determined the type of anesthesia given and followed them up to determine post-operative pulmonary infection. The following 2 x 2 table was generated.
What is the risk of having post-operative pulmonary infection given that the patient is exposed to general anesthesia?
a. 143/146
b. 143/160
c. 143/215
d. None of the above
b. 143/160
A group of surgeons and anesthesiologists wanted to investigate the relationship between type of anesthesia and post-operative pulmonary infection. They enrolled 215 patients, determined the type of anesthesia given and followed them up to determine post-operative pulmonary infection. The following 2 x 2 table was generated.
What is the risk of having post-operative pulmonary infection given that the patient is exposed to spinal anesthesia?
a. 3/146
b. 3/55
c. 3/215
d. None of the above
b. 3/55
A group of surgeons and anesthesiologists wanted to investigate the relationship between type of anesthesia and post-operative pulmonary infection. They enrolled 215 patients, determined the type of anesthesia given and followed them up to determine post-operative pulmonary infection. The following 2 x 2 table was generated.
How many patients are considered as having a true positive result?
a. 143
b. 146
c. 3
d. None of the above
d. None of the above
A group of surgeons and anesthesiologists wanted to investigate the relationship between type of anesthesia and post-operative pulmonary infection. They enrolled 215 patients, determined the type of anesthesia given and followed them up to determine post-operative pulmonary infection. The following 2 x 2 table was generated.
How many patients are considered as having a true negative result?
a. 52
b. 69
c. 17
d. None of the above
d. None of the above
What type of variable is the “type of anesthesia used?”
a. qualitative variable
b. Discrete quantitative variable
c. Continuous quantitative variable
d. None of the above
a. qualitative variable
What type of variable is the “post-operative pulmonary infection?”
a. qualitative variable
b. Discrete quantitative variable
c. Continuous quantitative variable
d. None of the above
a. qualitative variable
A group of surgeons and anesthesiologists wanted to investigate the relationship between type of anesthesia and post-operative pulmonary infection. They enrolled 215 patients, determined the type of anesthesia given and followed them up to determine post-operative pulmonary infection.
How many individuals are considered as having post-operative pulmonary infection?
a. 143
b. 3
c. 146
d. None of the above
c. 146
A group of surgeons and anesthesiologists wanted to investigate the relationship between type of anesthesia and post-operative pulmonary infection. They enrolled 215 patients, determined the type of anesthesia given and followed them up to determine post-operative pulmonary infection.
What is the rate of post-operative pulmonary infection among the patients enrolled in the study?
a. 143/163
b. 3/55
c. 146/215
c. 146/215
Identify the dependent variable considered in the study.
a. type of anesthesia
b. Post-operative pulmonary infection
b. Post-operative pulmonary infection
Identify the independent variable considered in the study:
a. type of anesthesia
b. Post-operative pulmonary infection
a. type of anesthesia
Use your z table in answering.
Find the area from 0 to 0.1
a. 0.5
b. 0.5398
c. 0.0398
d. None of the above
c. 0.0398
The Hemoglobin level of household heads in Calinan, Davao City has a mean of 12.63 gm% and standard deviation of 2.45 gm%. The cut-off point used is 7 gm%: Compute z for the cut-off point. (Show your computation using the extra-sheet).
a. 1.45
b. 2.29
c. – 1.45
d. None of the above
d. None of the above
Using the same case in Question # 42, what is the probability that a person would be classified as having severe anemia (if the cut-off point used is 7 gm%)? (Use the attached table: areas in one tail of the normal curve at selected values).
a. 0.0110
c. 0.0735
d. 0.110
e. None of the above
a. 0.0110
If the distribution of systolic blood pressure of non-hypertensive men is known to be approximately normal, with a mean of 110 mmHg and standard deviation of 15 mmHg. What is the proportion of non-hypertensive men who have systolic blood pressure above 115 mmHg?
a. 0.3707
b. 0.3557
c. 0.3336
d. None of the above
a. 0.3707
Suppose a borderline hypertensive is defined as a person whose diastolic blood pressure is between 90 and 95 mm Hg inclusive, and the subject are 35-44 year-old males whose blood pressures are normally distributed with mean 80 and variance 144. What is the probability that a randomly selected normotensive individual has a diastolic blood pressure above 85 mmHg?
a. 0.3327
b. 0.6628
c. 0.1339
d. None of the above
c. 0.1339
What is the proportion that a randomly selected individual has a diastolic blood pressure more than 95 mmHg?
a. 0.8944
b. 0.1056
c. 1.25
d. None of the above
b. 0.1056
2.0
a. 0.0228
b. 2.0
c. 0.222
d. None of the above
d. None of the above
1.49
a. 0.0808
b. 0.0287
c. 0.0581
d. None of the above
d. None of the above
2.5
a. 0.9938
b. 0.0062
c. 0.0048
d. None of the above
a. 0.9938
The measurement of this descriptive statistic is very sensitive to extreme values.
a) Mean
b) Median
c) Mode
d) None of the above
a) Mean
The rationale of this measure is to ensure an equal number of sample points on both sides of the central location.
a) Mean
b) Median
c) Mode
d) All of the above
d) All of the above
The principal strength of the sample is that it is not sensitive to very large or very small values.
a) Mean
b) Median
c) Rate
d) None of the above
b) Median
In this distribution, the points above the median will tend to be farther from the median in absolute value than points below the median.
a) Skewed to the right distribution
b) Normal distribution
c) Skewed to the left distribution
d) None of the above
a) Skewed to the right distribution
The most frequently occurring value among all the observations in a sample.
a) Frequency polygon
b) Mode
c) Standard deviation
d) None of the above
b) Mode
The value near the center of a normally distributed data points.
a) Mean
b) Median
c) Mode
d) All of the above
e) None of the above
d) All of the above
To compare the variability of cholesterol measurement on a given person using autoanalyzer method and microenzymatic method (the two methods are both quantitative continuous variables), it is best to examine this measure.
a) Variance
b) Rate
c) Mean
d) All of the above
e) None of the above
a) Variance
Definition of mean.
a) Summation of all values of sample points divided by the sample size
b) May have exactly the same sample points on both sides of the mean
c) A measure of central location
d) All of the above
e) None of the above
d) All of the above
Large data sets are best describe using this/these:
a) Measure of spread
b) Measure of central tendency
c) Tabular presentation
d) All of the above
e) None of the above
d) All of the above
For which set of data will the mean, the median, and the mode all be equal?
a) 1, 2, 5, 5, 7
b) 1, 1, 1, 2, 5
c) 1, 2, 5, 5, 8, 9
d) 1, 1, 1, 2
e) None of the above
c) 1, 2, 5, 5, 8, 9
Consider this set of data: 5, 5, 6, 7, 7. Which statement is true?
a) mean = mode
b) median = mode
c) mean = median
d) mean < median
e) None of the above
c) mean = median
What measurement of centrality can be used for a qualitative variable?
a) Mean
b) Median
c) Mode
d) None of the above
c) Mode
If the heights of a group of students are 180 cm, 173 cm, 170 cm, 185 cm and 162 cm, what is the mean height for this group?
a) 179 cm
b) 173 cm
c) 174 cm
d) 175 cm
c) 174 cm
The difference between the highest observed value and the lowest observed value.
a) Standard deviation
b) Mean
c) Range
d) Median
e) None of the above
c) Range
A study was conducted a included 120,000 women who in successive years were asked to answer a question about overall health, smoking, diet, use of birth control pills, and postmenopausal estrogen supplements. Epidemiologists followed up each interview with a review of the women’s medical records. Today, after more than a decade, the research team found that women on an extremely high-fat diet (nearly 50% of energy intake as fat) are at no more risk of breast cancer than those who adhere to an extremely lean diet (less than 29% diet). They did find a clear association between high fat diets and colon cancer, however.
What response variables are mentioned in the study?
a) 120,000 women
b) High fat and low fat diet
c) smoking, diet, use of birth control pills, and postmenopausal estrogen supplements
d) breast cancer and colon cancer
e) None of the above
d) breast cancer and colon cancer
Amount of fat in a person’s diet is:
a) a confounding variable
b) Dependent variable
c) Response variable
d) Independent variable
e) None of the above
d) Independent variable
The risk to breast cancer is not conclusive among women whether she is on high fat or extremely lean diet. This means that breast cancer is not considered as dependent variable in the study.
a) True
b) False
c) Cannot be determined
b) False
This statement is true of horizontal bar diagram.
a) This is used for qualitative variables with less than 6 categories
b) The magnitude for comparison is represented as bars whose lengths are proportionate to the values.
c) This is used of discrete quantitative variables
d) None of the above
b) The magnitude for comparison is represented as bars whose lengths are proportionate to the values.
Which is true of the histogram?
a) This is used for a qualitative variable
b) This is used for a quantitative discrete variable
c) This has the same use as the component bar
d) This is used for a quantitative continuous variable.
e) None of the above
d) This is used for a quantitative continuous variable.
The line diagram can be applied to this situation:
a) Qualitative variable
b) Time series
c) Discontinuous variable
d) All of the above
e) None of the above
b) Time series
Dot diagram
a) Correlation data for two quantitative variable
b) Discontinuous variable
c) This is used for qualitative data
d) None of the above
a) Correlation data for two quantitative variable
What graphical presentation is best suited for distributions having a discrete basis of classification?
a) Pie diagram
b) Component bar
c) Horizontal bar diagram
d) Vertical bar diagram
d) Vertical bar diagram
Which statement is true of a frequency polygon?
a) This is used for discontinuous data
b) This is used to determine the relationship between 2 quantitative variable
c) This is used for discrete variable
d) We are interested with measurement of area.
e) None of the above
d) We are interested with measurement of area.
What is a frequency polygon?
a) Used for qualitative data
b) Used for discontinuous data
c) Used for trend data
d) None of the above
d) None of the above
Which of the following is/are true of the principles of tabulation.
a) The tables should be simple. Two or three tables is better than one table with many variables
b) Each row and column should be labeled properly with specific units or measures for the data
c) The title should answer the questions what? How? Where? And when?
d) Totals should be shown
e) All of the above
e) All of the above
When a researcher is interested with the leading causes of infant mortality in Region XI, the following graphical presentation/s is/are preferred.
a) Vertical bar diagram
b) Pie chart
c) Component bar
d) Horizontal bar diagram
e) None of the above
d) Horizontal bar diagram
For distribution of infants according to the number of illness episodes experienced during the calendar year, this presentation is appropriate.
a) Histogram
b) Frequency polygon
c) Vertical bar diagram
d) All of the above
e) None of the above
c) Vertical bar diagram
What presentation is/are appropriate for the distribution of children enrolled in the feeding program according to sex?
a) Tables
b) Pie chart
c) All of the above
d) None of the above
c) All of the above
If a sample space contains a finite number of possibilities or an unending sequence with as many elements as there are whole numbers, it is called a:
a) discrete sample space
b) continuous sample space
c) Random variable
d) Sample space
e) None of the above
b) continuous sample space
If a sample space contains an infinite number of possibilities equal to the number of points on a line segment, it is called a:
a) discrete sample space
b) continuous sample space
c) Random variable
d) Sample space
e) None of the above
a) discrete sample space
The heights of a sample of ten people are: 67 73 70 60 67 66 68 71 70 67. Which are the correct real limits for the frequency table given below?
a) Column a
b) Column b
c) Column c
d) All of the above
e) None of the above
c) Column c
Section D first year medicine class had a standard deviation of 2.4 on anatomy first semester grade, while Section M first year medicine class had a standard deviation of 1.2 on the same subject grade. What can be said about these two classes?
a) Section D first year medicine class is more homogenous than Section M first year medicine class
b) Section M first year medicine class is less heterogeneous than Section D first year medicine class
c) Section M first year medicine class did less well on the subject grade than Section D first year medicine class
d) Section D first year medicine class performed twice as well on anatomy subject than Section M first year medicine class
b) Section M first year medicine class is less heterogeneous than Section D first year medicine class
Consider the following data: 1, 7, 3, 3, 6, 4 The mean and median for this data are:
a) 4 and 3
b) 4.8 and 3 1/2
c) 4 and 3 1/3
d) 4.8 and 3
e) 4 and 3 1/2
e) 4 and 3 1/2
A distribution of 6 scores has a median of 21. If the highest score increases 3 points, the median will become ___________.
a) 21
b) 21.5
c) 24
d) Cannot be determined without additional information
e) None of the above
a) 21
If you are told a population has a mean of 25 and a variance of 0, what must you conclude?
a) Someone has made a mistake.
b) There is only one element in the population.
c) There are no elements in the population.
d) All the elements in the population are 25.
e) None of the above.
d) All the elements in the population are 25.
If a teacher computes the mean for a set of test scores and then subtracts this mean from each score, the SUM of the resulting set of difference scores will equal.
a) zero.
b) unity.
c) n, the number of scores.
d) the mean.
e) n times the mean.
a) zero.
In a set of 10 scores the value 2 occurs three times, the value 4 occurs twice, 6 occurs twice, and 7 occurs three times. What is the mean of the scores?
a) (2 + 2 + 6 + 7)/4
b) (2 + 4 + 6 + 7)/10
c) (32 + 24 + 26 + 37)/4
d) (32 + 24 + 26 + 37)/10
d) (32 + 24 + 26 + 37)/10
The definition of variance.
a) A measure of how the individual data points behave around the mean.
b) The square of a standard deviation.
c) A measure of spread
d) All of the above
d) All of the above
This is expressed as a relative number expressing the magnitude of one occurrence or condition in relation to another.
a) Rate
b) Ratio
c) Both A and B are correct
c) Both A and B are correct
This can exist only if the numerator is included as part of the denominator.
a) Rate
b) Ratio
c) Both are correct
d) None of the above
a) Rate
Last year, price of paracetamol is P1.00 per tablet in 2 drugstores, P1.50 per tablet in 3 drugstore, and P2.00 per tablet in 2 drugstores. The number of drugstores with a price of paracetamol less than the mean is:
a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) None
b) 2
Nimonal variables
a) Mode
b) Median
c) Mean
d) None of the above
a) Mode
“SIN mode”
- Sex
- Immunization status
- Nominal
Ordinal variables
a. Mode
b. Median
c. Mean
d. None of the above
b. Median
Interval level variables
a. Mode
b. Median
c. Mean
d. None of the above
c. Mean
- Mean = I’ll Be Right Back
- Interval
- BMI
- Ratio
- Birthweight
Ratio level variables
a. Mode
b. Median
c. Mean
d. None of the above
c. Mean
- Mean = I’ll Be Right Back
- Interval
- BMI
- Ratio
- Birthweight
Sex
a. Mode
b. Median
c. Mean
d. None of the above
a. Mode
“SIN mode”
- Sex
- Immunization status
- Nominal
Apgar score
a. Mode
b. Median
c. Mean
d. None of the above
b. Median
Body mass index
a. Mode
b. Median
c. Mean
d. None of the above
c. Mean
- Mean = I’ll Be Right Back
- Interval
- BMI
- Ratio
- Birthweight
Immunization status
a. Mode
b. Median
c. Mean
d. None of the above
a. Mode
“SIN mode”
- Sex
- Immunization status
- Nominal
Birthweight
a. Mode
b. Median
c. Mean
d. None of the above
c. Mean
- Mean = I’ll Be Right Back
- Interval
- BMI
- Ratio
- Birthweight
True or False:
A textual presentation consists of describing the data in expository for.
True
True or False:
Large masses of data are best presented in a statistical table, which is a systematic organization of data in rows and columns.
True
True or False:
The title is necessary for easy reference if more than one table is included in a report or article.
False
True or False:
Footnote contains explanations, concerning individual figure, or row or a column
True
True or False:
The basis of classification of the histogram is quantitative and is applicable to continuous variable.
True
True or False:
Frequency polygon is an area diagram with the same use as the pie chart.
False
True or False:
The dot diagram is used to portray changes such as growth of population, temperature readings, birth and death rates from time to time.
False
True or False:
Sample is a subset off the population.
True
True or False:
Quantitative variable is a variable that is expressed numerically because it can be measured (e.g. heights of adult male.
True
True or False:
Independent variable is a variable which “hangs on” to another variable in determining an association between two variables (e.g. the presence of disease “hangs on” to age of person.)
False
Temperature measured in terms of oC.
A. Nominal
B. Ordinal
C. Interval
D. Ratio
C. Interval
Weight of the newborn infants.
A. Nominal
B. Ordinal
C. Interval
D. Ratio
D. Ratio
Ratio = “Neil Wears CAP”
- Number of pregnancies
- Weight of the newborn infants
- City size population
- Age of gestation
- Platelet count
Apgar score of babies 5 minutes after delivery.
A. Nominal
B. Ordinal
C. Interval
D. Ratio
B. Ordinal
Sex distribution of the first year medical students.
A. Nominal
B. Ordinal
C. Interval
D. Ratio
A. Nominal
Number of pregnancies.
A. Nominal
B. Ordinal
C. Interval
D. Ratio
D. Ratio
Ratio = “Neil Wears CAP”
- Number of pregnancies
- Weight of the newborn infants
- City size population
- Age of gestation
- Platelet count
Civil status of women in reproductive age in Barangay X.
A. Nominal
B. Ordinal
C. Interval
D. Ratio
A. Nominal
Occurrence of breast cancer among Filipino men and women.
A. Nominal
B. Ordinal
C. Interval
D. Ratio
A. Nominal
Platelet count of patients with dengue hemorrhagic fever.
A. Nominal
B. Ordinal
C. Interval
D. Ratio
D. Ratio
Ratio = “Neil Wears CAP”
- Number of pregnancies
- Weight of the newborn infants
- City size population
- Age of gestation
- Platelet count
Age of gestation
A. Nominal
B. Ordinal
C. Interval
D. Ratio
D. Ratio
Ratio = “Neil Wears CAP”
- Number of pregnancies
- Weight of the newborn infants
- City size population
- Age of gestation
- Platelet count
City population size
A. Nominal
B. Ordinal
C. Interval
D. Ratio
D. Ratio
Ratio = “Neil Wears CAP”
- Number of pregnancies
- Weight of the newborn infants
- City size population
- Age of gestation
- Platelet count
Temperature measured in terms of oC.
A. Qualitative variable
B. Discrete quantitative variable
C. Continuous quantitative variable
C. Continuous quantitative variable
CQV = TemPAW (Tempo)
- Temperature
- Platelet count
- Age of gestation
- Weight of the newborn infant
Weight of the newborn infants.
A. Qualitative variable
B. Discrete quantitative variable
C. Continuous quantitative variable
C. Continuous quantitative variable
CQV = TemPAW (Tempo)
- Temperature
- Platelet count
- Age of gestation
- Weight of the newborn infant
Apgar score of babies 5 minutes after delivery.
A. Qualitative variable
B. Discrete quantitative variable
C. Continuous quantitative variable
B. Discrete quantitative variables
DQV = No. of City Ap
- Number of pregnancies
- City population size
- Apgar score
Sex distribution of the first year medical students.
A. Qualitative variable
B. Discrete quantitative variable
C. Continuous quantitative variable
A. Qualitative variable
Number of pregnancies.
A. Qualitative variable
B. Discrete quantitative variable
C. Continuous quantitative variable
B. Discrete quantitative variables
DQV = No. of City Ap
- Number of pregnancies
- City population size
- Apgar score
Civil status of women in reproductive age in Barangay X.
A. Qualitative variable
B. Discrete quantitative variable
C. Continuous quantitative variable
A. Qualitative variable
Occurrence of breast cancer among Filipino men and women.
A. Qualitative variable
B. Discrete quantitative variable
C. Continuous quantitative variable
A. Qualitative variable
Platelet count of patients with dengue hemorrhagic fever
A. Qualitative variable
B. Discrete quantitative variable
C. Continuous quantitative variable
C. Continuous quantitative variable
CQV = TemPAW (Tempo)
- Temperature
- Platelet count
- Age of gestation
- Weight of the newborn infant
Age of gestation
A. Qualitative variable
B. Discrete quantitative variable
C. Continuous quantitative variable
C. Continuous quantitative variable
CQV = TemPAW (Tempo)
- Temperature
- Platelet count
- Age of gestation
- Weight of the newborn infant
City population size
A. Qualitative variable
B. Discrete quantitative variable
C. Continuous quantitative variable
B. Discrete quantitative variables
DQV = No. of City Ap
- Number of pregnancies
- City population size
- Apgar score
How many residents reportedly ate champorado? (refer to table 1)
a. 133
b. 117
c. 53.2%
d. 250
d. 250
What proportion of those who ate chicken salad got sick? (refer to table 1)
a. 53.2
b. 54.5
c. 117
d. 122
b. 54.5
Number of respondents from Barangay Kapatagan in the age group 25 - 29 who are users of contraceptives.
a. 32
b. 53
c. 85
d. 163
a. 32
Number of respondents from all the three barangays who do not use contraceptives.
a. 375
b. 1041
c. 666
d. 64.0%
c. 666
Number of respondents from Barangay Munting Buhangin aged below 30.
a. 24.6%
b. 63
c. 193
d. 256
d. 256
Percentage of contraceptive users among those who are aged 40 and above.
a. 70
b. 48.3
c. 6.7
d. None of the above
b. 48.3
Percentage of contraceptive non-users among respondents from Barangay Kabundukan.
a. 83
b. 64.8
c. 8.0
d. 4.3
b. 64.8
Which of the three barangays included in the survey has the highest proportion of contraceptive users?
a. Barangay Kabundukan
b. Barangay Kapatagan
c. Barangay Munting Buhangin
d. The same proportion can be computed in all three Barangays
c. Barangay Munting Buhangin
Percentage of respondents aged below 30 among the contraceptive non-users?
a. 434
b. 65.2%
c. 41.7
d. None of the above
b. 65.2%
Which age group has the highest proportion of contraceptive users?
a. 25 – 29
b. 30 – 34
c. 35 – 39
d. 40 +
c. 35 – 39
Age – Sex Distribution of Population, Country X. Assume that 50% of the population from 0 – 14 years old are males and the other 50% are females.
Compute for the age dependency ratio of country X. (refer to tables 4 and 5)
a. 7.23
b. 73.2
c. 76.3
d. 34.1
b. 73.2
Age – Sex Distribution of Population, Country X. Assume that 50% of the population from 0 – 14 years old are males and the other 50% are females.
Compute the sex ratio (please refer to tables 4 and 5).
a. 1:1
b. 107.4
c. 93.1
d. None of the above
c. 93.1
Compute for the age-specific death rate.
Under 1 year:
a. 5.37
b. 0.537
c. 53.7
d. None of the above
c. 53.7
Compute for the age-specific death rate.
1 – 4 years old
a. 1.63
b. .0163
c. 16.3
d. None of the above
c. 16.3
Compute for the age-specific death rate.
5 – 14 years old
a. 0.0101
b. 1.0
c. 10.01
d. None of the above
c. 10.01
Compute for the age-specific death rate.
15 – 19 years old
a. 0.045
b. 4.5
c. 45.0
d. None of the above
b. 4.5
Compute for the age-specific death rate.
20 – 44 years old
a. 0.7
b. 7.0
c. 70
d. None of the above
a. 0.7
Compute for the age-specific death rate.
45 – 64 years old
a. 0.83
b. 8.3
c. 83
d. None of the above
d. None of the above
Compute for the age-specific death rate.
Compute for the crude death rate
a. 0.715
b. 7.15
c. 71.5
d. None of the above
b. 7.15
Number of males below 15 years.
a. 930,720
b. The same number as the females in the population
c. 19.39% of the total population
d. Only A and C are correct
e. All of the above
d. Only A and C are correct
Position of the normal curve is determined by what parameter?
A. Population mean
B. Population variance
C. Both A & B
D. None of the above
A. Population mean
Pag shape of normal curve:
Variance
-score of 99%. C.I one tailed test is:
2.32
Extreme values more than actual value, even though null hypothesis is ______.
True
Between two areas of the normal distribution.
Probabilty Density Function
Rejection of the null hypothesis even H0 is true
Type 1 errors
Z score of 90% one tailed :
1.28
Z score of 95% one tailed
1.64
Given that x is normally distributed with a mean of 80 and a variance of 100. What is the p(70
E. 0.533
Requires the computation of sampling interval:
a. Systematic sampling
b. Stratified random sampling
c. Cluster sampling
d. Simple random
a. Systematic sampling
Large data sets are best describe using this/these:
a) Measure of spread
b) Measure of central tendency
c) Tabular presentation
d) All of the above
e) None of the above
d) All of the above
What measurement of centrality can be used for a qualitative variable?
a) Mean
b) Median
c) Mode
d) None of the above
c) Mode
The probability of currently having the disease regardless of the duration of time one has had the disease.
a. Incidence
b. Prevalence
c. Specificity
d. Sensitivity
e. None of the above
b. Prevalence
A set of all possible outcome.
a. Probability space
b. Sample size
c. Outer space
d. Sample space
e. None of the above
d. Sample space
This distribution is widely used because of its capacity to approximate other probabilities.
a. Binomial probability distribution
b. Poisson probability distribution
c. Normal probability distribution
d. None of the above
c. Normal probability distribution
Suppose z is regarded as a standard normal distribution. What is Pr (z<0.5)?
a. 0.1001
b. 0.2009
c. 0.6915
d. None of the above
c. 0.6915
Numerical or categorical data:
a. observation
b. sample space
c. Event
d. element
e. none of the above
a. observation
Subset of a sample space:
a. Observation
b. sample space
c. Event
d. element
c. Event
Percentage of people with the disease who are detected by the test
a. % False Positive
b. % False Negative
c. Sensitivity
d. Specificity
c. Sensitivity
Percentage of people with the disease who are not detected by the test.
a. % False Positive
b. % False Negative
c. Sensitivity
d. Specificity
b. % False Negative
Percentage of people without the disease who are incorrectly labeled by the test as having disease:
a. % False Positive
b. % False Negative
c. Sensitivity
d. Specificity
a. % False Positive
Penalty from missing presence of Human Immune-deficiency Virus (HIV) in the blood is high. Thus, it is required that the test use for screening should be:
a. Highly specific
b. Highly sensitive
c. Highly reliable
d. None of the above
b. Highly sensitive
The disease is such that it brings great emotional strain, costly to treat and side-effects of the drug of choice can be undesirable. Thus, one need a __________ to ensure that the diagnosis is unmistakably correct:
a. Highly specific
b. Highly sensitive
c. Highly reliable
d. None of the above
a. Highly specific
The Hemoglobin level of household heads in Calinan, Davao City has a mean of 12.63 gm% and standard deviation of 2.45 gm%. The cut-off point used is 7 gm%: Compute for the z.
a. 1.45
b. 2.29
c. 1.45
d. None of the above
b. 2.29
Representation of sub-groups are ensured:
a. Systematic sampling
b. Stratified random sampling
c. Cluster sampling
d. Simple random
b. Stratified random sampling
If you were to conduct a research in a slum community. Houses are not listed. The best sampling would be:
a. Systematic sampling
b. Stratified random sampling
c. Cluster sampling
d. Simple random
a. Systematic sampling
It assumes the equality of the members of the population to be selected:
a. Systematic sampling
b. Stratified random sampling
c. Cluster sampling
d. Simple random
d. Simple random
Requires the computation of sampling interval:
a. Systematic sampling
b. Stratified random sampling
c. Cluster sampling
d. Simple random
a. Systematic sampling
In a sample of 30 households from a population of 500, compute for the sampling interval, k.
a. 6
b. 0.06
c. 16.6
d. Cannot be computed
c. 16.6
When data are collected in a statistical study for only a portion or subset of all elements of interest we are using:
a. a sample
b. a parameter
c. a population
d. both b and c
a. a sample
ELISA and Westernblot table:
The sensitivity of the screening test is the probability that the symptom is present given that the person has the disease. Compute the sensitivity of the test.
A. 99.99% B. 0.01% C. 99% D. 1% E. None of the above
A. 99.99%
The specificity of the test is the probability that the symptom is not present given that the person does not have the disease.
a. 99.99%
b. 0.01%
c. 99%
d. 1%
e. None of the above
a. 99.99%
A random sample of 100 recorded deaths in the United States showed an average life span of 71.8 years. Assuming a population standard deviation of 8.9 years, does this seem to indicate that the average life span today is greater than 70 years? Use a level of significance.
What is the null hypothesis?
a. The average lifespan is 71.8 years
b. The average lifespan is lesser than 71.8 years
c. The average lifespan is 70 years
d. The average lifespan is greater than 70 years
e. None of the above
c. The average lifespan is 70 years
A random sample of 100 recorded deaths in the United States showed an average life span of 71.8 years. Assuming a population standard deviation of 8.9 years, does this seem to indicate that the average life span today is greater than 70 years? Use a level of significance.
What is the alternative hypothesis?
a. The average lifespan is 71.8 years
b. The average lifespan is lesser than 71.8 years
c. The average lifespan is 70 years
d. The average lifespan is greater than 70 years
d. The average lifespan is greater than 70 years
A random sample of 100 recorded deaths in the United States showed an average life span of 71.8 years. Assuming a population standard deviation of 8.9 years, does this seem to indicate that the average life span today is greater than 70 years? Use a level of significance.
What is the level of significance?
a. 1.64
b. 1.96
c. 2.58
d. None of the above
a. 1.64
A random sample of 100 recorded deaths in the United States showed an average life span of 71.8 years. Assuming a population standard deviation of 8.9 years, does this seem to indicate that the average life span today is greater than 70 years? Use a level of significance.
What is the test statistic?
a. t-test for 1 mean
b. z-test for 1 mean
c. ANOVA
d. None of the above
b. z-test for 1 mean
A random sample of 100 recorded deaths in the United States showed an average life span of 71.8 years. Assuming a population standard deviation of 8.9 years, does this seem to indicate that the average life span today is greater than 70 years? Use a level of significance.
What is your statistical decision?
a. Reject the null hypothesis
b. Accept the null hypothesis
c. Do not reject the null hypothesis
d. None of the above
a. Reject the null hypothesis
A random sample of 100 recorded deaths in the United States showed an average life span of 71.8 years. Assuming a population standard deviation of 8.9 years, does this seem to indicate that the average life span today is greater than 70 years? Use a level of significance.
What is your conclusion?
a. The average lifespan is 71.8 years
b. The average lifespan is lesser than 71.8 years
c. The average lifespan is 70 years
d. The average lifespan is greater than 70 years
e. None of the above
d. The average lifespan is greater than 70 years
To study whether or not pressure exerted on the upper arm increased bleeding time, 50 persons had their upper arm subjected to a pressure of 40 mm Hg and their fingers pricked. Their mean bleeding time was 2.19 minutes and the standard deviation of their bleeding time was 0.76 minutes. Forty-five (45) other persons acted as controls. No pressure was used for the controls and their bleeding time was found to have mean of 1.41 minutes and a standard deviation of 0.59 minutes. Is it reasonable to conclude that the mean bleeding time between the two groups is not the same? Let α = 0.05.
What is the null hypothesis?
a. The mean bleeding time of the group where pressure was exerted in the upper arm is greater than the mean bleeding time of those where pressure was not exerted.
b. The mean bleeding time of the two groups differs
c. The mean bleeding time of the 2 groups is the same
d. None of the above
c. The mean bleeding time of the 2 groups is the same
To study whether or not pressure exerted on the upper arm increased bleeding time, 50 persons had their upper arm subjected to a pressure of 40 mm Hg and their fingers pricked. Their mean bleeding time was 2.19 minutes and the standard deviation of their bleeding time was 0.76 minutes. Forty-five (45) other persons acted as controls. No pressure was used for the controls and their bleeding time was found to have mean of 1.41 minutes and a standard deviation of 0.59 minutes. Is it reasonable to conclude that the mean bleeding time between the two groups is not the same? Let α = 0.05.
What is your alternative hypothesis?
a. The mean bleeding time of the group where pressure was exerted in the upper arm is greater than the mean bleeding time of those where pressure was not exerted.
b. The mean bleeding time of the two groups differ
c. The mean bleeding time of the 2 groups is the same
d. None of the above
b. The mean bleeding time of the two groups differ
To study whether or not pressure exerted on the upper arm increased bleeding time, 50 persons had their upper arm subjected to a pressure of 40 mm Hg and their fingers pricked. Their mean bleeding time was 2.19 minutes and the standard deviation of their bleeding time was 0.76 minutes. Forty-five (45) other persons acted as controls. No pressure was used for the controls and their bleeding time was found to have mean of 1.41 minutes and a standard deviation of 0.59 minutes. Is it reasonable to conclude that the mean bleeding time between the two groups is not the same? Let α = 0.05.
What is the level of significance?
a. 1.64
b. 1.96
c. 2.58
d. None of the above
b. 1.96
To study whether or not pressure exerted on the upper arm increased bleeding time, 50 persons had their upper arm subjected to a pressure of 40 mm Hg and their fingers pricked. Their mean bleeding time was 2.19 minutes and the standard deviation of their bleeding time was 0.76 minutes. Forty-five (45) other persons acted as controls. No pressure was used for the controls and their bleeding time was found to have mean of 1.41 minutes and a standard deviation of 0.59 minutes. Is it reasonable to conclude that the mean bleeding time between the two groups is not the same? Let α = 0.05.
What is the test statistics?
a. t-test for 2 means
b. z-test for 2 means
c. ANOVA
d. None of the above
b. z-test for 2 means
What is the null hypothesis?
a. The average lifespan of the two groups are the same
b. The average lifespan of the mice is increase by 8 months
c. The average lifespan of the two groups are not the same
d. None of the above
b. The average lifespan of the mice is increase by 8 months
What is the alternative hypothesis?
a. The average lifespan is of the two groups is not the same
b. The average life span of mice is 8 months
c. The average life span of the two groups are the same
d. None of the above
d. None of the above
What is the appropriate test statistic?
a. t-test for 2 means
b. z-test for 2 means
c. t-test for dependent samples
d. None of the above
a. t-test for 2 means
Assuming that the populations of androgen at time of injection and 30 minutes later are normally distributed, test at the 0.01 level of significance whether the androgen concentrations are altered after 30 minutes of restraint.
What is the null hypothesis?
a. The androgen level of the deer at baseline is the same as the androgen level 30 minutes after injection
b. The androgen level of the deer at baseline is not the same as the androgen level 30 minutes after injection
c. The androgen level is increased 30 minutes after the injection
d. None of the above
a. The androgen level of the deer at baseline is the same as the androgen level 30 minutes after injection
Assuming that the populations of androgen at time of injection and 30 minutes later are normally distributed, test at the 0.01 level of significance whether the androgen concentrations are altered after 30 minutes of restraint.
What is the alternative hypothesis?
a. The androgen level of the deer at baseline is the same as the androgen level 30 minutes after injection
b. The androgen level of the deer at baseline is not the same as the androgen level 30 minutes after injection
c. The androgen level is increased 30 minutes after the injection
d. None of the above
b. The androgen level of the deer at baseline is not the same as the androgen level 30
Assuming that the populations of androgen at time of injection and 30 minutes later are normally distributed, test at the 0.01 level of significance whether the androgen concentrations are altered after 30 minutes of restraint.
What is the appropriate statistical test?
a. t-test for 1 sample mean
b. t-test for dependent samples
c. t-test for independent samples
d. None of the avove
b. t-test for dependent samples
- Prior to the Directly Observe Treatment of Short course Therapy (DOTS) for TB patients, about 35% of the patients failed to adhere to treatment and are not cured (Year 2002). With the 3-year implementation of the new strategy of TB DOTS, a new round of evaluation is being carried out as to proportion of patients who failed to adhere to treatment and comparing it with Year 2002. Formulate the null hypothesis if it is two-tailed test.
a. The rate of those who failed to adhere to treatment in the year 2002 is the same as the rate of those who failed to adhere to treatment in the year 2005.
- Prior to the Directly Observe Treatment of Short course Therapy (DOTS) for TB patients, about 35% of the patients failed to adhere to treatment and are not cured (Year 2002). With the 3-year implementation of the new strategy of TB DOTS, a new round of evaluation is being carried out as to proportion of patients who failed to adhere to treatment and comparing it with Year 2002. Formulate the null hypothesis if it is one-tailed test.
a. The rate of those who failed to adhere to treatment in the year 2002 is the same as the rate of those who failed to adhere to treatment in the year 2005.
- Prior to the Directly Observe Treatment of Short course Therapy (DOTS) for TB patients, about 35% of the patients failed to adhere to treatment and are not cured (Year 2002). With the 3-year implementation of the new strategy of TB DOTS, a new round of evaluation is being carried out as to proportion of patients who failed to adhere to treatment and comparing it with Year 2002. Formulate the null hypothesis if it has no difference.
a. The rate of those who failed to adhere to treatment in the year 2002 is the same as the rate of those who failed to adhere to treatment in the year 2005.
- Cohort studies are sometimes referred to as:
a. Retrospective study
b. Ecologic study
c. Prospective study
C. Prospective study
Cohort studies can also be done retrospectively.
a. True
b. False
A. True
