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Kognitiva Processer VT21 > Instuderingsfrågor V. 1-2 > Flashcards

Instuderingsfrågor V. 1-2 Flashcards

1
Q

Kognitiva processer x3 inrikntingar

A

Experimentell kognitiv psykologi

+ orsak och verkan fynd

+ viktig roll i utvecklandet av kognitiva teorier (generalisering)

+ grunden för andra områden

    • bortser från individuella skillnader*
    • studium påverkas av att vara studium*

Neuropsykologi

+ teorier om normal kognition utifrån abnormal kognition

+ kognition intakt eller ej?

Kognitiv neuroVETENSKAP

+ hjärnavbildning friska och sjuka hjärnor. T.ex. fMRI, MEG, EEG, PET (olika bra temporal och spatial upplösning)

  • få försökspersoner - osäker data

+

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2
Q

Vad är kognition?

A

De interna processer som är involverade i förståelsen av vår omgivning, och i besluten om vilket beteende som är mest relevant.

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3
Q

Vilka funktioner brukar nämnas som kognitiva funktioner?

Nämn 4

A

Attention

language

learning

memory

perception

thought

problemsolving, reasoning, decision making

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4
Q

introspektion och nackdelar och psykologcer x2

A

Man studerar det inre mentala livet genom självobservation.

  1. Svårt att få fram information om de omedvetna procsserna.
  2. Data är inte vetenskapligt testbara.
  3. Oberoende observatör saknas.

Wilhelm Wundt och Edward Titchener

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5
Q

Vad karaktäriserar behaviorismen?

A

Stimuli-respons associationer, i den ordningen

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6
Q

Inom kognitiv psykologi, vad studerar man?

A

Man studerar orsak och verkan och använder sig av slutledning. Man startar alltså med observerbara fakta och arbetar sig därefter bakåt.

Ex: En slutledning är giltig då slutsatsen följer av premisserna.

  • jag blev utan present (orsak) - jag blev ledsen (verkan, beteende)*
  • Jag blev ledsen. Varför blev jag ledsen? Jol, jag blev utan present och det gjorde mig ledsen.*
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7
Q

Vad är frenologi?

A

Frenologi är läran att mentala förmågor, begär och läggningar är lokaliserade till s.k. organ i hjärnan

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8
Q

Vad är ”localization of function”?

A

Refers to the idea that functions can be attributed to specific regions of the brain.

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9
Q

What is EEG? How can we study brain activity during a task using EEG?

A

EEG measures sum of rhythmical potentials on thousands of neurons (EEG waves).

We can study brain activity using ERP – event related potentials. For example expose the subject to a stimuli and measure the aggregated signal from many activated neurons. One time is not enough, 100 times is usually enough to detect ERP

+ Very good temporal resolution

  • poor spatial (rumslig) resolution (svårt att se vilket område exakt som aktiveras)
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10
Q

What are the differences and similarities between EEG and MEG?

A

MEG is the magnetic counterpart of EEG and measures the magnetic fields generated by active neurons (300 detectors).

EEG – ERP (event relatied potentials)

MEG – ERF (event related magnetic-field responses)

EEG sensitive to Gyri activity

MEG sensitive to sulci activity

+ Excellent temporal resolution

  • Poor spatial resolution but little better than EEG

+ measuring functional properties?

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11
Q

Which neuroimaging technique has the best temporal resolution: EEG or fMRI?

A

EEG has better temporal resolution

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12
Q

Imaging Methods har olika tekniker för att undersöka…?

x3

A
  1. struktur,/anatomcial level
  2. aktivitet/funktion
  3. chemistry/molecules

Välj neuroimaging metod efter två parametrar.

storlek/nivå och tid.

ex anatomical level - inte behov av lika bra temporal resolution.

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13
Q

Which neuroimaging technique has the best spatial resolution: EEG or fMRI?

A

FMRI (measures structural properties of the brain, spatial resolution is important)

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14
Q

What is the name (full name) of the MRI sequence that is used to measure microstructural white matter integrity?

A

DTI MRI (diffusion tensor imaging, magnetic resonance imaging) - measures structural connectivity.

Myelin is made of fat and the protons will return later than protons in the cerebrospinal fluid and thus create an image of anatomy of brain structure. MRI scanner att specific sequence and magnetic field.

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15
Q

What is it measured with T1-weighted MRI?

A

T1-weighted MRI measure anatomy of brain structure.

structural vomumetry, morphometry

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16
Q

Describe how a T1-weighted image is built by an MRI scanner using the following words:

spin/proton, equilibrium, magnetic field, radiofrequency wave, flip, relaxation.

A

A. Protons/spins randomly oriented.

B. Neutral state (equilibrium), very strong magnetic field from the machine, 3 tesla. Organizing protons with polarity.

C. Scan start with a predecided radiofrequency wave. Protons flip while absorbing energy.

D. MRI is turned off. Protons will fall back to equilibrium and release energy (relaxation) which are detected by electromagnetic detectors around the head.

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17
Q

What is an anisotropic medium? How does a water molecule move in an anisotropic medium?

A

Water molecules are restricted by the tracts orientation. They can’t move randomly. They move in longitudinal direction.

Anisotropic materials are materials whose properties are directionally dependent.

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18
Q

Which are the main measures calculated on DTI images, and what do they reflect?

A

DTI - diffusion tensor model is an mathematical element that estimates rate and directionality of the water molecules across tissues.

isotropic - no obstacles and no direction

anisotropic voxel - obstacles and always direction

Main DTI images:

Fractional Anisotrophy - fiber density and coherence (represents anisotropic/direction diffusion)

Mean diffusivity - mebrane density

(reflects rate of diffusion independently of directionality

Axial Diffusivity - axon quality

(reflects rate of diffusion along the major axis of the tensor)

Radial diffusivity - myelination

(reflects rate of diffusion perpendicular to the major axis of the tensor)

Methods for representing DTI - data:

ROI: region of interest

VBM: Voxel-based Spatial statistics

Tractography (fiber tracking) - way of reconstructing white matter tract

The indentified voxels will be linked together by a curve that materializes the bundle. pilar i ett rutnät

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19
Q

What is the physiological basis of the fMRI signal?

A

BOLD stands for Blood-oxygen level dependent and is the physiological basis of the fMRI signal.

by utilizing the unique NMR signal characteristics of oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin, MRI can be used to indirectly measure local neuronal activity based on this vascular system

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20
Q

Does fMRI really measure brain activity? Describe how we obtain an fMRI signal using the following words: neurovascular coupling, blood flow, stimulus, BOLD, hemoglobin, magnetic, oxygenated, deoxygenated, neuronal activity.

A

fMRI measures brain activity indirectly.

fMRI measures blood flow in the brain and are blood-oxygen level dependent (BOLD response).

Neural activity need glucose and oxygen to function and oxygen binds specific to hemoglobin. When a neuron becomes activated by a stimuli, a neurovascular coupling occurs between the two systems (neural and vascular system) run by astrocytes (a type of glial cell). The response is called a haemodynamic response, when deoxygenated blood are replaced by oxygenated blood. The two have different magnetic properties. The change in the magnetic field can be measured by fMRI.

BOLD – when an area of the brain is more active so increases the blood flow

When the blood flow increases, there is a larger proportion of oxygenated hemoglobin locally.

21
Q

If, during fMRI, the scanner records one brain volume of activation every 2 seconds, if the experiments lasts 12 minutes, how many brain volumes will you obtain?

A

360 brain volumes.

22
Q

What are the differences between a block design and an event-related design in fMRI?

A

As said earlier, one stimulus is not enough to see any brain activity. There are two ways you can do this.

Either a block design, presenting stimuli in blocks (A, B, A) or event-related design in which you show stimuli randomly.

23
Q

Define “spatial normalization”.

Why is this preprocessing step needed to perform group analyses?

A

Spatial normalization is when you correct for the movement the subject does during FMRI scanning. Spatial align 200-300 images to the first one until the difference between the two is zero.

24
Q

What is the reason why we need to have a “control” or “baseline” condition in an fMRI experiment?

A

BOLD value means nothing because while you are at rest you are still active. Without a baseline you don’t know just with your BOLD signal at brain area, you don’t know if it is related to your task or if it is something that is always active when you are at rest. Always about making subtraction to get ROI.

Another important reason is to be more and more specific about what you want to look at. For example you want to measure memory but the subject need to read them as well. This will lead to brain activity in reading area and remembering area. You need to subtract reading activity from remembering activity. Isolate activity.

25
Q

What can we study with resting-state fMRI? ¨

A

We can study brain activity during resting state that in turns can reveal spontaneous functional networks that can reflect structural connectivity within functional networks.

Lying still during 6-10 min, closed eyes.

Can be used in pediatric and clinical neuroscience where functional brain organization can be examined independent of behavioural performance.

26
Q

What are the strengths and limitations of PET?

A

PET has good spatial resolution and almost infinite possibilities to study molecules.

PET has bad or no temporal resolution, are invasive (radioactive substances) and expensive, cyclotron need to be near.

27
Q

Describe how PET works, using the following words: cyclotron, radiotracer, injection, positron, electron, annihilation, photon, detectors.

A

The cyclotron is needed to create the radiotracers. Different radiotracers has different halveringstid. The radiotracers are injected into body and binds to different molecules of interest. A positron is made and is the positive counterpart of electron.

annhilation, photon, detectors

28
Q

Using PET, what can you measure with PIB?

A
29
Q

Where is the Broca’s area in the brain? Who was Broca? What is the function of this region? What happens if one gets a lesion in this region?

A

Paul Broca kartlade hjärnans anatomi. Var särskilt intresserad av språk och studerade en patient vid namn Leborgne’s som hade en skada på left frontal area.

Ett område som därefter blivit kallat efter Broca. Broca’s area associeras med expressive aphasia (kan inte producera språk, men språkförståelse är intakt).

30
Q

Broca’s area is heavily connected to another region in the brain. What is its name, where is it located, and why is it named like this? What is the function of this other region? At the anatomical level, how are the 2 regions connected?

A

Broca’s area är starkt kopplat till (Carl) Wernicke’s area (lokaliserad i left posterior superior temporal gyrus in the dominant cerebral hemisphere).

Wernicke’s area is involved in the comprehension of written and spoken language in contrast to Broca’s, which is involved in the production of language.

Dom två regionerna är sammankopplade av arcuate fasciculus (white matter tract). När denna integrativa del är ur funktion leder detta till ”Cunduction Aphasia” (use of incorrect words or phenomes while speaking)

31
Q

Who received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906 and why?

A

Ramón y Cajal received the nobel prize for their work on the structure of the nervous system which were in fine detail.

32
Q

Which are the 2 major types of cells in the brain? Which ones process information?

A

Neurons and glial cells. Neurons process information.

33
Q

How is myelin made? Where is it located exactly? What is its composition?

A

Myelin are composed of water, lipids and protein. Myelin are produced by a special glial cell called oligodendrocytes. Located around axons.

34
Q

What are the roles of the myelin? x3

A

isolerar och skyddar axon

increase speed of impulses

prevent electrical currents from leaving the axon.

35
Q

What is the gray matter of the brain made of? What is the white matter of the brain made of?

A

Gray matter is made of neuron cell bodies and white matter is myelin.

36
Q

What is a neurotransmitter?

A

Neurotransmittor är signalsubstans. Finns inhibitoriska och excitatoriska. Glutamate (exc) and GABA (inhib). Dom två mest prevalenta neurotransmittorerna.

Aminoacids (glutamate, gaba)

Monoamines (dopamine, serotonin)

Peptides (opioder)

Other (acetylcholine)

37
Q

Where is the CSF located in the brain?

What can we find in the CSF?

A

Barin, spinal cord and ventricles.

CSF is composed of metals and ions (iron, calcium, potassium, magnesium,…), proteins, and other molecules (albumin, glucose, lactate, creatinine, …)

38
Q

Name 4 glial cells. What are their functions?

A

Oligodendrocytes – produces myelin for axons

Astrocytes – cover capillaries, part of the blood-brain barrier neural and vascular separation also involved in communication between the swo systems, involved in neurovascular coupling and Interact metabolically with neurons; Chemical regulation of the neurons’ environment, Recycling of neurotransmitters

Microglia – immune system of the brain

Ependymal cells – producer of CFS and move their cilia to make the CSF circulate

39
Q

How many lobes does a brain have? Give their names.

A

5 lobes (frontal lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, limbic lobe (medial temporal lobe)

40
Q

How many Brodmann areas exist?

Within the cerebral cortex, which are the 3 big categories of regions?

A

52 st Brodmann areas.

Motor areas – departure points for controlling muscle movement (Brocas Area)

Sensory areas – feeling, hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting (primary visual cortex)

Association areas

41
Q

“Superior lateral frontal cortex” can also be called

“ventrolateral frontal cortex”, dorsomedial frontal cortex”, dorsolateral frontal cortex”, “dorsomedial frontal cortex”, or “orbitofrontal cortex”?

A

dorsolateral frontal cortex

42
Q

Which brain structures are not labeled with Brodmann areas?

x4

A

Basal ganglia, thalamus, hippocampus, amygdala = subcortical areas

43
Q

Name all the structures that are part of the “basal ganglia”.

A

Caudate, Putamen, accumbens = striatum

Substantia nigra, subthalamic nucleus

44
Q

What important neurotransmitter is in the basal ganglia?

A

dopamine

45
Q

What is the name of the small structure involved in episodic memory? In emotion?

A

Thalamus Belongs to the “diencephalon” Is made of many small nuclei. Relays sensory and motor information. Relay between cerebral cortex and subcortical structures. Regulates states such as consciousness, sleep, wakefulness, awareness

eller amygdala

46
Q

Describe the flow of information between the entorhinal cortex and the subfields of the hippocampus (hippocampus circuitry).

A

In the hippocampus, information flows mostly in a unidirectional manner

47
Q

Name the 3 categories of white matter tracts and characterize them according to their type of connections within the nervous system.

A

A. Commissural fibers – Corpus callosum

connect the 2 hemispheres of the brain

B. Association fibers – cingulum, uncinated fasciculus, superior/inferior longitudinal fasciculus, inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus Arcuate fasciculus

connect regions within the same hemisphere of the brain

C. Projection fibers – (connect cortical regions to lower parts of the brain or spinal cord) Internal capsule/corona radiata/corticospinal tract

48
Q

Classify these white matter tracts in their categories: corpus callosum, inferior longitudinal fasciculus, arcuate fasciculus, corona radiata, cingulum, anterior commissure.

A
49
Q
A

Kognitiva Processer VT21 (3 decks)

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