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Infection & Response Flashcards

1
Q

What are pathogens?

A

Microorganisms that cause disease.

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2
Q

What are communicable diseases?

A

Diseases caused by pathogens that spread through a population as the pathogen passes between people.

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3
Q

What are examples of pathogens?

A

Viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protists.

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4
Q

What are non-communicable diseases?

A

Diseases not caused by pathogens, such as cancer, diabetes, and heart disease, often caused by genetics or environmental factors.

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5
Q

How do viruses make us feel ill?

A

By entering our cells (host cells) and replicating inside of them, causing cell damage.

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6
Q

How do bacteria make us feel ill?

A

By producing toxins (poisonous molecules) which can damage our tissues.

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7
Q

What happens once bacteria and viruses enter the body?

A

They can reproduce very rapidly.

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8
Q

What diseases are caused by viruses?

A

Measles, AIDS, and tobacco mosaic virus (TMV).

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9
Q

What is measles?

A

A disease caused by a virus that you were probably vaccinated for as a child.

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10
Q

How is measles spread?

A

When a healthy person inhales infected lipid droplets from an infected person (after they sneeze or cough).

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11
Q

What are the symptoms of measles?

A

Rashes and a fever.

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12
Q

What disease is caused by the HIV virus?

A

AIDS.

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13
Q

How does HIV affect the body?

A

It replicates inside cells of the immune system destroying them and weakening the immune system preventing the body from fighting off minor infections.

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14
Q

How is HIV transmitted?

A

Through the exchange of bodily fluids in the following ways: unprotected sexual intercourse sharing hypodermic needles blood transfusions and from mother to child during childbirth.

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15
Q

What is tobacco mosaic virus?

A

A disease that affects plants causing discolouring of leaves and reducing their ability to photosynthesise efficiently.

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16
Q

How does tobacco mosaic virus affect plant growth?

A

It reduces the amount of pigment in the leaves preventing efficient photosynthesis and leading to stunted growth.

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17
Q

How is tobacco mosaic virus spread?

A

When the leaves of a healthy plant physically touch a plant with TMV.

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18
Q

What diseases are caused by bacteria?

A

Gonorrhoea and food poisoning.

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19
Q

What is gonorrhoea?

A

A bacterial disease spread by having unprotected sex with an infected person.

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20
Q

What are the symptoms of gonorrhoea?

A

Painful urination and a yellow-coloured discharge around the genitals.

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21
Q

How is gonorrhoea treated?

A

With antibiotics.

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22
Q

How can gonorrhoea be prevented?

A

By using condoms or other barrier methods.

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23
Q

What is Salmonella food poisoning?

A

A bacterial disease caused by eating food containing the Salmonella bacteria.

24
Q

How does Salmonella cause illness?

A

Once the bacteria enter the body, it divides rapidly and releases toxins which damage our cells and make us feel ill.

25
What are the symptoms of food poisoning?
Stomach ache vomiting and diarrhoea.
26
What is rose black spot?
A fungal disease that affects plants.
27
What are the symptoms of rose black spot?
Reddish-black spots on the leaves of plants causing discolouration and reducing photosynthesis.
28
How does rose black spot affect plant growth?
It prevents the plant from carrying out as much photosynthesis causing poor growth. The leaves may turn yellow and fall off.
29
How does rose black spot spread?
When the fungus lands on a plant after being blown by the wind or floating along rivers or streams.
30
How can the spread of rose black spot be prevented?
With fungicides (chemicals which kill fungi) and by cutting off diseased leaves from the plant.
31
What is malaria?
A disease caused by the protist Plasmodium.
32
How is malaria spread?
Some mosquitos carry Plasmodium and transfer it to the bloodstream of a person when they bite.
33
What are the symptoms of malaria?
A recurring fever and sometimes death.
34
How can the spread of malaria be prevented?
Using mosquito nets insect repellent and anti-malarial drugs.
35
What are non-specific defences?
The barriers that stop pathogens from entering our body and shield us against all types of pathogens.
36
What is the role of the skin in our defences?
The skin forms an impenetrable barrier to pathogens. If the skin is wounded, blood forms a clot at the site of the wound to prevent the entry of pathogens.
37
What is the role of the nose in our defences?
The nose has a mucus lining which traps pathogens present in inhaled air.
38
What is the role of the trachea and bronchi in our defences?
The cells of our airways produce mucus to trap pathogens and contain cilia which waft mucus towards the stomach where it is destroyed by stomach acid.
39
What is the role of the stomach in our defences?
The stomach contains hydrochloric acid which kills any pathogens.
40
What happens when a pathogen enters the body?
It stimulates the specific immune response which defends us against pathogens in three ways.
41
What is phagocytosis?
A type of white blood cell called a phagocyte engulfs the pathogen and contains it in a vesicle called a phagosome. The phagocyte also contains a lysosome which is another type of vesicle containing digestive enzymes. The phagosome and the lysosome fuse forming a phagolysosome. The digestive enzymes digest the pathogen killing it in the process. The debris from the digested pathogen is then removed from the phagocyte.
42
What is antibody production?
Lymphocytes (white blood cells) produce antibodies which bind to molecules found on the surface of pathogens (antigens). When antibodies bind to antigens, they stop the pathogen from being able to enter cells and causing harm.
43
What is antitoxin production?
Lymphocytes also produce antitoxins which bind to the toxins released by bacteria. When antitoxins are bound to toxins, they neutralise them and stop them from causing tissue damage.
44
What is vaccination?
A medical procedure which involves injecting someone with a dead or attenuated (weakened) form of a pathogen to stimulate white blood cells to produce antibodies. Since the pathogen is dead or inactive, the person will mount an immune response without suffering from any symptoms. If the person is infected with the same pathogen in the future, the correct antibodies can be produced quickly and in high numbers.
45
What is herd immunity?
It occurs when a large proportion of the population is vaccinated. Even if some people are not immunised, there will be fewer infectious people in the population, reducing the chance of non-vaccinated people encountering an infectious person.
46
What are antibiotics?
A medicine which kills bacteria. They are used in the treatment of bacterial diseases such as gonorrhoea. They are ineffective against diseases caused by viruses such as measles and HIV/AIDS. Some bacteria have become resistant to certain antibiotics which means there are fewer treatment options for some bacterial diseases. For example gonorrhoea used to be treated with penicillin but now many strains are resistant so other antibiotics must be used. Prescribing antibiotics unnecessarily or not finishing the whole course of antibiotics are factors which increase antibiotic resistance.
47
What are painkillers?
A medicine which reduces pain. They are used to treat the symptoms of the disease. They do not kill pathogens so cannot be used as a cure.
48
What are treatments for viruses?
Treatments are limited because it is difficult to develop drugs which kill only viral particles and not our own cells. Vaccines are used as a preventative measure but won’t treat the disease once somebody is infected.
49
Where do most commonly used drugs come from?
Most of the drugs that we commonly use were derived from plants. For example the active ingredient in aspirin originates from willow and the antibiotic penicillin was discovered from a mould growing on a melon. A drug called digitalis which is used to treat heart failure was extracted from foxgloves.
50
How are modern drugs made?
Modern drugs are mostly synthesised artificially by chemists in the lab but often the compound is a variation or an artificial version of a compound that has been extracted from plants. It’s important to maintain biodiversity as there may be lots of plant species which contain chemicals with useful medicinal properties.
51
What must happen before newly synthesised drugs are made available?
Before newly synthesised drugs are made available to patients they must first undergo preclinical and clinical testing.
52
What is preclinical testing?
Preclinical testing involves checking the potential toxicity of the drug by adding it to cell culture in the lab or to live animals.
53
What happens during clinical testing?
The drug then goes through clinical testing where the drug is given to both healthy volunteers and patients.
54
What happens during the initial stage of clinical testing?
First a very low dosage of the drug is given to check that it is safe. If there are no adverse side effects the dosage is increased to find the optimum dose.
55
What is a placebo?
A placebo is a substance which has no medicinal value and its purpose is to rule out any possible psychological benefit an individual might feel just from receiving medical attention.
56
What is a double-blind trial?
Clinical trials are usually double-blind – this is where neither the patients nor doctors are aware who has received the drug and who has received the placebo. This is important because the doctor may subtly give away who has received the actual treatment (for example by paying more attention to the symptoms displayed by the treatment group). Double-blind trials are more complicated to set up but the results are more reliable.

Biology (30 decks)

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