Industrial/Organizational

Question 1

Research on job satisfaction suggests that it:

Answer 1

Research suggests job satisfaction is a stable trait that is minimally affected by changes in occupations and/or employers. This has been supported by twin studies that indicate a genetic contribution to job satisfaction.

Question 2

Group tasks categories

Answer 2

additive, compensatory, disjunctive, or conjunctive. On a conjunctive task, the performance of the least competent member places a limit on the group’s product or performance. Mountain climbing is an example of a conjunctive task. Disjunctive - a group task or project, such as solving a complex problem, that is completed when a single solution, decision, or group member’s recommendation is adopted by the group. This means that the group’s performance tends to be determined by the most skilled member.

Question 3

According to expectancy theory, motivation is a function of three components:

Answer 3

expectancy, instrumentality, and valence

Question 4

expectancy theory - expectancy

Answer 4

effort → performance; Expectancy is the belief that one’s effort (E) will result in attainment of desired performance (P) goals, usually based on an individual’s past experience, self-confidence (self efficacy), and the perceived difficulty of the performance standard or goal

Question 5

expectancy theory - instrumentality

Answer 5

performance → outcome; Instrumentality is the belief that a person will receive a reward if the performance expectation is met.

Question 6

expectancy theory - valence

Answer 6

Valence refers to the value a worker places on the outcomes that will be provided for successful performance. outcome → reward

Question 7

Fielder’s model of leadership

Answer 7

Fielder’s model of leadership is a contingency theory that proposes that leadership effectiveness is the result of an interaction between the leader’s style and the favorableness of the situation and will therefore vary according to this contingency, with high LPC leaders being more effective in some situations and low LPC leaders being more effective in others.

Question 8

incremental validity

Answer 8

A test’s incremental validity refers to the benefits that use of the test provides with regard to decision-making accuracy.

Question 9

differential validity

Answer 9

has different levels of validity for males and females—i.e., it has differential validity.

Question 10

discriminant (divergent) validity

Answer 10

A test has discriminant (divergent) validity when it has low correlations with tests that measure different traits, characteristics, or abilities. Discriminant validity provides evidence of a test’s construct validity.

Question 11

convergent validity

Answer 11

A test has convergent validity when it correlates highly with tests that measure the same trait. Convergent validity provides evidence of construct validity.

Question 12

in organizations, the 80% rule is used to determine if:

Answer 12

a selection procedure is having an adverse impact; The 80% rule is described in the EEOC’s Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures and is used to determine if a selection test or other employment procedure is discriminating against members of a group protected by law. As defined by the 80% rule, a selection test is having an adverse impact when the proportion of minority-group applicants who are selected is less than 80% of the proportion of majority-group applicants who are selected.

Question 13

Lewin’s force field theory describes planned change in organizations as involving which of the following stages?

Answer 13

According to Lewin (1951), organizations continuously respond to forces that either promote or resist change. Unfreezing, changing, and refreezing are the three stages of planned change identified by Lewin.

Question 14

Donald Super’s life career rainbow

Answer 14

Super uses several pictures to illustrate elements of his life-space, life-span theory of career development. The life career rainbow relates the individual’s nine life roles (e.g., child, student, citizen) to five life stages (growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and disengagement).

Question 15

The best conclusion that can be drawn about the four-day (compressed) workweek is that it has:

Answer 15

positive effects on attitudes but little or no impact on productivity; The compressed workweek requires employees to work a 4-day, 40-hour week. Overall, alternative work schedules have been found to have more beneficial effects on attitudes than on productivity, and this seems to be particularly true for the compressed workweek. For example, a meta-analysis of the research on the compressed workweek by Baltes and his colleagues (1999) found an effect size of .59 for satisfaction and .04 for productivity.

Question 16

According to Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership model, “employee maturity” is a function of the employee’s:

Answer 16

skills and willingness to assume responsibility; propose that a leader is most effective when their behavior matches the employee’s level of maturity. Hersey and Blanchard distinguish between two aspects of employee maturity: job maturity refers to the employee’s knowledge and skills, while psychological maturity refers to the employee’s self-confidence and willingness to assume responsibility.

Question 17

Assessment centers are most commonly used to:

Answer 17

hire and promote managers; Assessment centers were originally used during World War II as a means of selecting OSS agents. They are now used primarily for evaluating and predicting the performance of managerial-level employees—particularly, evaluating managerial-level employees for the purpose of selection, promotion, or training. Assessment centers have participants engage in a variety of exercises, many of which simulate the actual tasks a manager performs on-the-job.

Question 18

In organizations, the “paired comparison” technique is used to:

Answer 18

evaluate an employee’s job performance; The paired comparison technique is a method of performance appraisal. See the Industrial-Organizational Psychology chapter for a description of other specific methods that you’re likely to encounter on the exam. As its name implies, use of the paired comparison technique involves comparing each employee to every other employee in pairs on each dimension of job performance.

Question 19

The rational-economic model of decision making is based on the assumption that:

Answer 19

decision makers have complete information about all alternatives and their consequences before making decisions; the rational-economic model assumes that decisions are based on a rational process. From the perspective of the rational-economic model, “rational” means considering all alternatives and their consequences before making a decision.

Question 20

Vestibule training

Answer 20

Vestibule training involves the use of a simulated job environment. Vestibule training is used when on-the-job training would be too costly or hazardous, as it would be in pilot training.

Question 21

Training program development steps

Answer 21

needs analysis, job analysis, and job evaluation; begins with a needs analysis (also known as a needs assessment), which usually consists of three components: an organizational analysis, a job analysis, and a person analysis.

Question 22

Scientific management was developed by Frederick Taylor (1911)

Answer 22

Scientific management was developed by Frederick Taylor (1911) who applied the scientific method to the study of job productivity. Taylor believed that employees are motivated primarily by economic self-interest and, therefore, that money is the most effective motivator.

Question 23

The halo effect

Answer 23

The halo effect occurs when the rater’s rating of an employee’s job performance on one dimension affects performance ratings on other dimensions. Rating scale training increases rating accuracy. Researchers have demonstrated that comprehensive training can mitigate the halo effect. The halo effect and other rater bias types can also be reduced by employing multiple raters, by implementing behavior-specific ratings (as opposed to ratings based on global behaviors), and by using specific scale types (such as forced-choice and paired comparison scales).

Question 24

The paired comparison technique

Answer 24

is used when a rater compares each employee with every other employee, in pairs, on dimensions of job performance.

Question 25

the forced distribution technique

Answer 25

involves assigning employees to a limited number of categories based on predefined normal distribution on one or more dimensions of job performance.

Question 26

Ranking employees

Answer 26

Ranking employees is another relative technique used to mitigate rater bias. Employees may be ranked from highest to lowest on a dimension of job performance (such as most to least productive).

Question 27

distinction between relative and absolute measures of employee performances?

Answer 27

This question relies on the distinction between relative and absolute measures of employee performance. Absolute techniques used to measure job performance are susceptible to a number of rater biases that limit their accuracies, such as the leniency/strictness bias, the central tendency bias, and the halo effect (which can be positive or negative). Relative techniques (paired comparison, forced distribution, ranking) help alleviate rater biases.

Question 28

ABSOLUTE TECHNIQUES (CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE, FORCED-CHOICE RATING SCALE, BARS):

Answer 28

Absolute techniques are methods of subjective performance assessment that indicate a ratee’s performance in absolute terms (i.e., not in terms of the performance of other employees). The critical incident technique involves using a checklist of critical incidents (descriptions of successful and unsuccessful job behaviors) to rate each employee. Each item in a forced-choice rating scale consists of two to four alternatives that are considered to be about equal in terms of desirability, and the rater selects the alternative that best or least describes the ratee. BARS is a graphic rating scale that requires the rater to choose the one behavior for each dimension of job performance that best describes the employee.

Question 29

ADVERSE IMPACT/80% RULE

Answer 29

Adverse impact occurs when use of a selection test or other employment procedure results in substantially higher rejection rates for members of a legally protected (underrepresented) group than for the majority group. The 80% rule can be used to determine if adverse impact is occurring. When using this rule, the hiring rate for the majority group is multiplied by 80% to determine the minimum hiring rate for the underrepresented group

Question 30

AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT (ADA):

Answer 30

The ADA requires companies with 15 or more employees to avoid using procedures that discriminate against people with physical or mental disabilities. It also requires that, when a disabled person is able to perform the essential functions of a job, an employer must consider the person qualified and make “reasonable accommodations” that help the person perform the job, as long as the accommodations do not result in undue hardship for the employer.

Question 31

BIG FIVE PERSONALITY TRAITS:

Answer 31

Factor analyses have identified five basic personality traits — neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Of these, conscientiousness has been found to be the best predictor of job performance across different jobs, job settings, and criterion measures

Question 32

BRAINSTORMING

Answer 32

Brainstorming is a method of generating creative ideas that requires individuals or group members to freely suggest any idea or thought without criticism, evaluation, or censorship. Research suggests that individuals brainstorming alone do better than the same number brainstorming together.

Question 33

CENTRALIZED AND DECENTRALIZED NETWORKS

Answer 33

Centralized communication networks are best for simple tasks; while decentralized communication networks are better for complex tasks and are associated with greater overall satisfaction.

Question 34

COMPARABLE WORTH:

Answer 34

Comparable worth is also known as pay equity. It refers to the principle that jobs that require the same education, experience, skills, and other qualifications should pay the same wage/salary regardless of the employee’s age, gender, race/ethnicity, etc. and regardless of the content of the job in question.

Question 35

COMPRESSED WORKWEEK:

Answer 35

The compressed workweek is an alternative work schedule that involves decreasing the number of work days by increasing the number of hours worked each day. It is associated with better supervisor ratings of employee performance, employee overall job satisfaction, and employee satisfaction with the work schedule, with the effects being strongest for employee attitudes.

Question 36

CONSIDERATION AND INITIATING STRUCTURE:

Answer 36

The Ohio State University studies found that the behavior of leaders can be described in terms of two independent dimensions – consideration (person-centered style) and initiating structure (task-oriented style).

Question 37

CONTINGENCY THEORY (FIEDLER):

Answer 37

Fiedler’s contingency theory proposes that a leader’s effectiveness is related to an interaction between the leader’s style and the nature favorableness) of the situation. Low LPC leaders (leaders who describe their least preferred coworker in negative terms) are most effective in very unfavorable or very favorable situations; while high LPC leaders (leaders who describe their least preferred coworker in positive terms) are better in moderately favorable situations.

Question 38

CRITERION CONTAMINATION:

Answer 38

Criterion contamination occurs when a criterion measure assesses factors other than those it was designed to measure. For example, contamination is occurring when a rater’s knowledge of a ratee’s performance on a predictor affects how the rater rates the ratee on the criterion. It can artificially inflate the criterion-related validity coefficient.

Question 39

DAWIS AND LOFQUIST’S THEORY OF WORK ADJUSTMENT

Answer 39

The theory of work adjustment describes satisfaction, tenure, and other job outcomes as the result of the correspondence between the worker and their work environment on two dimensions – satisfaction and satisfactoriness. A worker’s satisfaction with the job depends on the degree to which the characteristics of the job correspond to their needs and values, while the worker’s satisfactoriness depends on the extent to which the worker’s skills correspond to the skill demands of the job.

Question 40

DEMAND-CONTROL MODEL (KARASEK):

Answer 40

Karasek’s demand-control model predicts that job demands and job control are the primary contributors to job stress. Jobs associated with the highest levels of stress are characterized by a combination of high job demands and low job control and include machine-paced jobs and some service jobs.

Question 41

DIFFERENTIAL VALIDITY AND UNFAIRNESS

Answer 41

Differential validity exists when the validity coefficient of a predictor is significantly different for one subgroup than for another subgroup (e.g., lower for African American job applicants than for White applicants). Unfairness occurs when members of an underrepresented group consistently score lower on a predictor but perform approximately the same on the criterion as members of the majority group. Differential validity and unfairness are potential causes of adverse impact.

Question 42

DOWNSIZING/SURVIVOR SYNDROME:

Answer 42

Downsizing occurs when an organization attempts to reduce its costs by reducing the size of the work force and/or by eliminating entire divisions or businesses. Workers who are not “downsized” may exhibit survivor syndrome, which is characterized by depression, anxiety, guilt, stress-related illnesses, and decreased job satisfaction and organizational commitment

Question 43

EQUITY THEORY:

Answer 43

Equity theory proposes that an employee’s motivation is related to the employee’s comparison of their input/outcome ratio to the input/outcome ratios of others performing the same or similar jobs. A perception of inequity leads to attempts to restore equity, with the perception of underpayment inequity (the belief that one is putting more into the job than one is getting from it) leading to more adverse outcomes than overpayment inequity does (the belief that one is putting less into the job than one is getting from it).

Question 44

EXPECTANCY THEORY

Answer 44

Expectancy theory regards job motivation as the result of three elements: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. The highest levels of motivation occur when an employee believes that high job effort results in high task success (high expectancy), that high success leads to the attainment of certain outcomes (high instrumentality), and that the outcomes are desirable (positive valence).

Question 45

FLEXTIME

Answer 45

Flextime is an alternative work schedule that allows workers to choose the times they will begin and end work. It is associated with increased employee productivity, overall job satisfaction, and satisfaction with the work schedule and decreased absenteeism.

Question 46

FORCE FIELD ANALYSIS (LEWIN):

Answer 46

According to Lewin’s force-field analysis model of planned change, organizational change involves three stages – unfreezing, changing, and refreezing.

Question 47

FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE EVALUATION:

Answer 47

Formative evaluations are conducted while a training program is being developed, and their results are used to make necessary modifications to the program. A summative evaluation is conducted after a program has been implemented in order to assess its outcomes

Question 48

FOUR LEVELS OF CRITERIA (KIRKPATRICK):

Answer 48

Kirkpatrick identified four levels of criteria for evaluating the effects of a training program – reaction, learning, behavior, and results.

Question 49

FRAME-OF-REFRENCE TRAINING:

Answer 49

Frame-of-reference training is a type of rater training that emphasizes the multidimensional nature of job performance and focuses on developing a common understanding (frame of reference) among raters and the ability to distinguish between good and poor work-related behaviors on each dimension. It is useful for limiting rater biases.

Question 50

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN LEADERSHIP:

Answer 50

Eagly and Johnson’s (1990) meta-analysis of the research found that male and female leaders do not consistently differ in terms of consideration or initiating structure. However, female leaders are more likely than male leaders to rely on a democratic (participative) decision-making style.

Question 51

GOAL-SETTING THEORY:

Answer 51

Goal-setting theory proposes that employees will be more motivated to achieve goals when they have explicitly accepted those goals and are committed to them. It also proposes that assigning specific, moderately difficult goals and providing employees with feedback about their progress toward achieving goals increases productivity.

Question 52

GROUP NORMS/IDIOSYNCRASY CREDITS:

Answer 52

Group norms are the standard rules of conduct that maintain uniformity of behavior among group members. Idiosyncrasy credits are positive sentiments within a group toward a member that allow that member to occasionally deviate from group norms. A person accumulates idiosyncrasy credits when they have a history of conforming to norms, has contributed in some special way to the group, or has served as the group leader.

Question 53

GROUP POLARIZATION:

Answer 53

Group polarization is the tendency of groups to make more extreme decisions (either more conservative or riskier) than individual members would have made alone.

Question 54

GROUPTHINK

Answer 54

Groupthink occurs when the desire of group members for unanimity and cohesiveness overrides their ability to realistically appraise or determine alternative courses of action. It can be alleviated when the group leader encourages dissent, has someone play devil’s advocate, and refrains from stating their decision or solution too quickly

Question 55

HAWTHORNE EFFECT:

Answer 55

The Hawthorne effect refers to an improvement in job performance resulting from participation in a research study (i.e., due to the novelty of the situation, increased attention, etc.)

Question 56

HOLLAND (RIASEC, DIFFERENTIATION):

Answer 56

Holland’s career theory emphasizes the importance of a good personality/work environment match and distinguishes between six personality and environment types (“RIASEC”) – realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional. A personality-environment match is most accurate as a predictor of job outcomes when the individual exhibits a high degree of differentiation – i.e., has clear interests as evidenced by a high score on one of Holland’s six types and low scores on all others.

Question 57

IDENTICAL ELEMENTS:

Answer 57

Providing identical elements – i.e., ensuring that training and performance environments are similar as possible in terms of materials, conditions, etc. – maximizes transfer of training

Question 58

INCREMENTAL VALIDITY (SELECTION RATIO, BASE RATE):

Answer 58

Incremental validity refers to the increase in decision-making accuracy resulting from the use of a new predictor. It is maximized when the predictor’s validity coefficient is high, the selection ratio is low, and the base rate is moderate. (The selection ratio is the ratio of number of jobs to job applicants; the base rate is the proportion of successful decisions without the new predictor.)

Question 59

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CHANGE AGENTS:

Answer 59

A change agent is a person who is responsible for guiding a change effort. An internal change agent is a member of the organization, is already familiar with the company’s culture, norms, and power structure, and has a personal interest in the change effort. An external change agent (consultant) is often able to see the situation more objectively, to bring in a new perspective, and to be better received by the members of the organization because of their impartiality.

Question 60

JOB ANALYSIS VERSUS JOB EVALUATION:

Answer 60

A job analysis is a systematic process of determining how a job differs from other jobs in terms of required responsibilities, activities, and skills. It is often the first step in the development of a predictor or criterion and is used for other purposes including identifying training needs or determining the causes of accidents. Job analysis must not be confused with job evaluation, which may begin with a job analysis but is conducted as part of the process of setting wages and salaries

Question 61

JOB BURNOUT

Answer 61

Job burnout is caused by accumulated stress associated with overwork. Its primary symptoms are a feeling of low personal accomplishment, depersonalization, and emotional exhaustion. An early sign of burnout is a sudden increase in work effort without a corresponding increase in productivity.

Question 62

JOB ENRICHMENT AND JOB ENLARGEMENT

Answer 62

Job enrichment is a method of job redesign that is based on Herzberg’s two-factor theory and involves making a job more challenging and rewarding in order to increase job motivation and satisfaction. It must not be confused with job enlargement, which involves increasing the number and variety of tasks included in a job without increasing the worker’s autonomy, responsibility, etc.

Question 63

JOB SATISFACTION (DISPOSITION, AGE, PAY, TURNOVER)

Answer 63

High levels of satisfaction are associated with certain worker and job characteristics; e.g., older employees, higher-level employees, and employees whose jobs allow them to use their skills and abilities tend to be most satisfied. In addition, studies of twins suggest that there is a genetic component to job satisfaction. The relationship between pay and satisfaction is complex and seems to be related more to the perception that one is being paid fairly than to the actual amount of pay. In terms of job outcomes, the strongest relationship is between satisfaction and turnover (r = -.40).

Question 64

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE (SCHEIN)

Answer 64

According to Schein, organizational culture can be described in terms of three basic levels – artifacts, espoused values and beliefs, and underlying assumptions.

Question 65

KRUMBOLTZ'S SOCIAL-LEARNING THEORY

Answer 65

Krumboltz’s social-learning theory focuses on career decision-making and proposes that a person’s decisions are influenced by four factors – i.e., genetic endowment and special abilities, environmental conditions and events, learning experiences, and task approach skills.

Question 66

MEDIATION AND ARBITRATION

Answer 66

Mediation and arbitration are methods of alternative dispute resolution that involve the use of a neutral third-party. However, a mediator cannot dictate an agreement between disputants but, instead, helps clarify the issues, facilitates communication, and offers alternatives and a recommended solution. In contrast, an arbitrator has more authority than a mediator and controls both the process and outcome of conflict resolution.

Question 67

METHODS OF TRAINING (JOB ROTATION, BEHAVIORAL MODELING, VESTIBULE TRAINING):

Answer 67

Training in organizations can be on-the-job or off-the-job. Job rotation is an example of the former; behavioral modeling and vestibule training are examples of the latter. Vestibule training takes place off the job in a simulated work environment and is useful when on-the-job training would be too dangerous or disruptive.

Question 68

MODELS OF INDIVIDUAL DECISION-MAKING (SIMON):

Answer 68

According to the rational-economic model, decision makers attempt to maximize benefits by systematically searching for the best decision or solution. In contrast, the bounded rationality (administrative) model proposes that rational decision-making is limited by internal and external constraints so that decision makers often satisfice rather than optimize (i.e., they consider decisions or solutions until a fairly good one is encountered and then stop searching due to limited time and resources).

Question 69

MULTIPLE REGRESSION AND MULTIPLE CUTOFF:

Answer 69

Multiple regression and multiple cutoff are methods for using multiple predictor scores. Multiple regression is a compensatory method, while multiple cutoff is non-compensatory.

Question 70

NATIONAL CULTURE (HOFSTEDE):

Answer 70

According to Hofstede, the culture of nations can be described in terms of five dimensions – power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism, masculinity, and long-term orientation

Question 71

NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT (McCLELLAND):

Answer 71

McClelland’s research using the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) revealed that three basic needs underlie work motivation – need for affiliation, need for power, and need for achievement. Employees with high needs for achievement (nACH) usually choose tasks of moderate difficulty and risk, apparently because success on these tasks depends more on effort than on uncontrollable factors. They also prefer frequent, concrete feedback, and, although their motivation does not depend on money, they view monetary rewards as a source of feedback and recognition.

Question 72

NEED-HIERARCHY THEORY (MASLOW)

Answer 72

Maslow’s need-hierarchy theory proposes that people have five basic needs that are arranged in a hierarchical order such that a need higher in the hierarchy doesn’t serve as a source of motivation until all lower needs have been fulfilled. These needs, in order, are physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization. The research has not been very supportive of Maslow’s theory.

Question 73

NEEDS ASSESSMENT:

Answer 73

Needs assessment is also known as needs analysis and is a systematic process of identifying job performance requirements and employee performance deficits for the purpose of identifying training needs and the content of training programs. It includes organizational, task (job), person, and demographic analyses.

Question 74

NORMATIVE (DECISION-MAKING) MODEL

Answer 74

The Vroom-Yetton-Jago normative model of leadership distinguishes between 11 situational factors and five decision-making strategies that vary in terms of degree of employee participation in the decision-making process. It provides a decision tree to help leaders select the optimal strategy for their situation.

Question 75

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT:

Answer 75

Organizational commitment refers to the strength of an employee’s identification with the organization. Although commitment seems to have minimal effects on productivity, a high degree of affective commitment is related to higher levels of motivation and satisfaction, lower rates of absenteeism and turnover, and a greater willingness to make sacrifices for the company

Question 76

ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE:

Answer 76

Organizational justice refers to workers’ evaluations of organizational policies and procedures that are based on their perceived fairness. Three types of organizational justice are distinguished – procedural, distributive, and interactional.

Question 77

OVERLEARNING:

Answer 77

Overlearning refers to practicing or studying beyond the point of mastery and is associated with enhanced recall and performance under stress

Question 78

PATH-GOAL THEORY:

Answer 78

Path-goal theory is based on the assumption that an effective leader is one who can help identify a path for subordinates that allows them to fulfill personal goals through the achievement of group and organizational goals. It proposes that the best leadership style (directive, supportive, participative, or achievement-oriented) depends on certain characteristics of the worker and the work

Question 79

PERSONNEL ASSESSMENTS:

Answer 79

Personnel assessments are a type of organizational assessment that collects individual data such as accomplishment records, personality tests, and work samples.

Question 80

PERSON-MACHINE FIT

Answer 80

A distinguishing characteristic of the human factors psychology is its reliance on general systems theory, which is manifested in its emphasis on the person-machine fit (also known as human-machine fit). From this perspective, performance is the result of an interaction between people and machines (or any other non-human element in the work environment), and any failure in performance is due to a person-machine mismatch.

Question 81

PERSON-ORGANIZATION FIT:

Answer 81

Person-organization (P-O) fit refers to the degree to which a person’s values and beliefs match those of the organization’s culture. A good fit is associated with a number of benefits including higher levels of job satisfaction, motivation, and organizational commitment and lower levels of stress and voluntary turnover.

Question 82

PREDICTORS (GENERAL MENTAL ABILITY TESTS, BIODATA, INTERVIEWS, WORK SAMPLES, ASSESSMENT CENTER):

Answer 82

General mental ability tests are considered to be the best predictor of job performance across different jobs and job settings. Biodata are also good predictors of performance, especially when items are empirically derived. Interviews are the most commonly used predictor in organizations but generally have low levels of reliability and validity. This is less true of structured than unstructured interviews. Work samples require the applicant to perform a task or operation actually required by the job. Assessment centers are used to evaluate and train applicants and current employees at the management or administrative level and incorporate a variety of techniques (e.g., interviews, objective tests, and situational tests)

Question 83

PROCESS CONSULTATION:

Answer 83

Process consultation is an organizational development intervention in which a consultant helps members of the organization perceive, understand, and identify ways of improving the processes that are undermining their interactions and the organization’s effectiveness.

Question 84

QUALITY CIRCLES:

Answer 84

A quality circle consists of a small, voluntary group of employees who work together on a particular job and meet regularly to discuss job-related problems and solutions. Representatives of the quality circle then present their solutions to management.

Question 85

RATER BIASES:

Answer 85

Rater biases are contaminating factors in the rating process that are related to the way that the rater assigns ratings. Common biases include central tendency bias, leniency/strictness bias, and halo bias. The best way to reduce rater biases is to provide raters with adequate training, especially training that helps them observe and distinguish among different levels of performance (e.g., frame-of-reference training).

Question 86

REALISTIC JOB PREVIEW:

Answer 86

A realistic job preview is a method of providing accurate and complete information about the job and the organization to job applicants. Its primary goal is to reduce turnover by reducing disillusionment caused by unrealistic expectations about the job.

Question 87

RELATIVE RATING TECHNIQUES (PAIRED COMPARISON, FORCED DISTRIBUTION):

Answer 87

Relative rating techniques are subjective measures of job performance that compare an employee’s performance to that of other employees. When using the paired-comparison technique, the rater compares each ratee with every other ratee in pairs on one or more dimensions of job performance. When using the forced-distribution technique, the rater assigns ratees to a limited number of categories based on a predefined normal distribution on one or more dimensions of job performance.

Question 88

SELF-ASSESSMENTS:

Answer 88

Self-assessments are a type of organizational assessment utilized when organizational development is the goal.

Question 89

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT:

Answer 89

As described by Taylor, scientific management involves (a) scientifically analyzing jobs into their component parts and then standardizing those parts; (b) scientifically selecting, training, and placing workers in jobs for which they are mentally and physically suited; (c) fostering cooperation between supervisors and workers to minimize deviation from scientific methods of work; and (d) having managers and workers assume responsibility for their own share of their work.

Question 90

SELF-MANAGED WORK TEAMS:

Answer 90

Self-managed work teams are autonomous work groups whose members are trained in the skills needed to effectively perform the group task. Their function is to make hiring, budgetary, and other decisions that were previously made by managers.

Question 91

SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORY:

Answer 91

Bandura’s social-cognitive theory of motivation emphasizes the self-regulation of behavior and proposes that self-regulation involves four processes – goal-setting, self-observation, self-evaluation, and self-reaction.

Question 91

SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Answer 91

Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership model proposes that the best leadership style depends on the job maturity of the workers, which is a function of ability and willingness to assume responsibility. It distinguishes between four leader styles – telling, selling, participating, and delegating.

Question 92

SOCIAL FACILITATION AND INHIBITION:

Answer 92

Social facilitation refers to the increase in learning and performance that occurs in the presence of others; it is most likely to occur when the task is simple or well-learned. Social inhibition refers to the decrease in learning and performance that occurs in the presence of others; it is most likely to occur when the task is new or complex.

Question 93

SOCIAL LOAFING:

Answer 93

Social loafing is the tendency of an individual to exert less effort when acting as a member of a team than when working alone. It can be alleviated by ensuring that the individual’s contribution is identified and rewarded.

Question 94

STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT:

Answer 94

Tuckman and Jensen distinguish between five stages of group development – forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.

Question 95

SUPER (SELF-CONCEPT, CAREER MATURITY, LIFE-CAREER RAINBOW):

Answer 95

According to Super’s life-space, life-span theory, the selection of a job involves finding a job that matches one’s self-concept (which reflects one’s values, personality, interests, etc.). The theory also emphasizes the importance of career maturity, which is the ability to cope with the developmental tasks of one’s life stage. The Life-Career Rainbow relates an individual’s major life roles to five life stages and is useful for helping a career counselee recognize the impact of current and future roles and stages on career planning.

Question 96

TAYLOR-RUSSELL TABLES:

Answer 96

The Taylor-Russell tables are used to estimate a predictor’s incremental validity when the criterion-related validity coefficient, selection ratio, and base rate are known.

Question 97

THEORY X AND THEORY Y

Answer 97

According to McGregor, Theory X managers believe that employees dislike work and avoid it whenever possible and, as a result, must be directed and controlled. In contrast, Theory Y managers view work as being “as natural as play” and assume that employees are capable of self-control and self-direction.

Question 98

TIEDEMAN AND O’HARA’S CAREER DECISION-MAKING MODEL:

Answer 98

Tiedeman and O’Hara’s career decision-making model describes vocational identity development as an ongoing process that is tied to ego identity development and distinguishes between two phases of decision-making: anticipation and implementation/adjustment.

Question 99

TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM):

Answer 99

TQM is a management theory that emphasizes customer service, employee involvement (especially teamwork), and continuous improvement in goods and services.

Question 100

TRANSFORMATIONAL AND TRANSACTIONAL LEADERS:

Answer 100

Transformational leaders are characterized by their ability to recognize the need for change, create a vision for change (including using “framing” to describe the need for change in a way that is meaningful to followers), and effectively execute the change. They are contrasted with transactional leaders who tend to maintain the status quo and rely on rewards and punishments to motivate behavior.

Question 101

TWO-FACTOR THEORY (HERZBERG):

Answer 101

Herzberg’s two-factor theory is a theory of both motivation and satisfaction that places satisfaction and dissatisfaction on two separate continua. Motivator factors (increased autonomy, responsibility, control, etc.) contribute to satisfaction and motivation when they are present; while hygiene factors (pay, pleasant working conditions) contribute to dissatisfaction when they are absent.

Question 102

TYPES OF GROUP TASKS:

Answer 102

Tasks performed by groups can be classified in terms of five types – additive, compensatory, disjunctive, conjunctive, and discretionary.

Question 103

UTILITY ANALYSIS:

Answer 103

Utility analysis is used in organizations to evaluate the effectiveness of training, selection, and other interventions; it uses mathematical equations to obtain an estimate of institutional gain or loss in financial terms.

Question 104

WORK-FAMILY CONFLICT:

Answer 104

Work-family conflict refers to conflicts caused by incompatible work and family role demands. It is associated with a number of negative consequences, including reduced job, marital, and life satisfaction, job burnout, job turnover, decreased job productivity, and mental and physical health problems

Question 105

WORK SHIFTS:

Answer 105

Of the three fixed shifts (day, swing, and graveyard), the graveyard shift is associated with the most problems; however, these problems may be alleviated if the worker voluntarily chooses the graveyard shift. The rotating shift is associated with even more problems than the graveyard shift (e.g., higher accident rates, lower productivity).

Question 106

YERKES-DODSON LAW:

Answer 106

The Yerkes-Dodson Law predicts that the highest levels of performance are associated with moderate levels of arousal (motivation) – i.e., the relationship between arousal and performance takes on the shape of an inverted-U.