Inductive Arguments Flashcards
What is an inductive argument?
An argument based on an observation which develops into an assumption that the observation is a regular occurrence
What is a cosmological argument?
Observes and concludes that the best explanation for the universe is God
What is a teleological argument?
Observes the natural world and concludes that God is the designer and that the world has an end purpose
What does ‘telos’ mean?
Purpose in Greek
What is a posteriori knowledge?
Using knowledge derived from observation and experience
What is Aquinas’ First Way?
Change - there must be an efficient cause which moves something from a state of potentiality into a state of actuality
What analogy does Aquinas use for the First Way?
A block of marble (potential) requires a sculptor (efficient cause) to become a statue (actual)
What is Aquinas’ work called?
Summa Theologica
What is Aquinas’ Second Way?
Cause - there cannot be an infinite number of causes so there must be an uncaused cause
What is the analogy for the Second Way?
The 1st domino (efficient cause) causes the 2nd domino (intermediate cause) to fall, leading the 3rd domino (ultimate cause) to fall
What is Aquinas’ Third Way?
Contingency - everything that exists is dependant on something else for existence, there must be something with a necessary existence on which everything else depends
Where does the word ‘kalam’ originate?
Arabic ‘to argue’
Where does the Kalam Argument originate?
al-Ghazali, 12th Century Arabic thought
What is the 1993 Craig version of the Kalam argument?
There is no physical explanation for the cause of the universe so it must be a personal one
What did Craig argue about actual infinity?
It cannot exist and so neither can a beginningless temporal series of events
What is Craig’s library analogy?
- a library has infinite books
- it has infinite red books and infinite black books
- therefore red books = total, and red + black is double the total
- this is absurd
What is actual infinity?
Has no beginning and no end
What is potential infinity?
Something that could become infinite with effort applied, e.g. numbers
What is Aristotle’s Zeno’s Paradox?
If you break down movement into infinite tiny steps, you can never finish the steps and so will never get anywhere - infinity and movement aren’t compatible
What are 3 strengths of cosmological arguments?
- It is easy to understand the concept of things not being able to cause themselves
- Infinity is inconceivable
- Simple and adaptable
What are 3 weaknesses of cosmological arguments?
- Outdated by science
- Jumps from saying God ought to exist to saying he does exist
- Only helps people who already have faith
What are Kant’s 2 challenges to cosmological arguments?
- It is wrong to assume the universe is part of a system of cause and effect
- The concept of a necessary being is illogical and meaningless
What is Kenny’s challenge to cosmological arguments?
We can bring ourselves into a state of inertia so we do not needed an unmoved mover
What is Russell’s fallacy of composition?
Something that applies to a part does not necessarily apply to the whole
What is Swinburne’s position on cosmological arguments?
The argument is an inference to the best explanation, making God more probable
What was William of Ockham’s view on cosmological arguments?
God is a matter of faith, not knowledge and it is possible the world had no beginning
In what work did Hume challenge inductive arguments?
Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
What are Hume’s 3 challenges to cosmological arguments?
- Cause and effect is an assumption, not a certainty
- We cannot question the universe as we have no experience of anything similar
- Just because everything in the universe has a cause does not mean the universe does
How does science challenge cosmological arguments?
The Big Bang theory suggests the universe originated from a random appearance of singularity
What is Aquinas’ Fifth Way?
Something that lacks intelligence cannot move towards a fulfilling end unless something with intelligence moves it
What is design qua regularity and what theory does it relate to?
- Things that lack intelligence act with predictable regularity due to divine design
- Aquinas’ Fifth Way
What analogy relates to the Fifth Way?
An arrow (non-intelligent) cannot reach the target (end purpose) by itself, it must be directed by an archer (God)
What was William Paley’s work and when was it written?
- Natural Theology
- 1802
What is Paley’s teleological argument?
- If a person sees a stone on a heath they can understand how it naturally came to be there
- If they see a watch on a heath they must conclude it has been designed by an intelligent being, not by chance, and has been made for a purpose
What is design qua purpose and what theory does it relate to?
- Everything in the universe appears to have been designed to fulfil some purpose
- Watchmaker analogy
What were F.R. Tennant’s dates?
1866-1957
What is the anthropic argument?
The world has been designed in such a way that is perfect for human life
What is the aesthetic argument?
The beauty in the world is not functionally necessary therefore must be the creation of a benevolent God
What are 3 strengths of the teleological argument?
- There is observable evidence of the efficient processes of the world
- The universe appears adapted to suit human beings
- Everything appears purposeful
What are 3 weaknesses of the teleological argument?
- There is no evidence to suggest the universe needs a designer
- J.S. Mill argues there is an abundance of bad design and flaws in the world
- Evidence of design does not necessarily point to the God of Classical Theism
What are 3 of Hume’s challenges to the teleological argument?
- Assuming governing intelligence is not inductive evidence
- This world could be a work of an apprentice God who has gone on to design better
- Comparing the universe to a machine is of no more use than comparing it to a carrot
How does Darwin’s work challenge the teleological argument?
Evolution suggests the appearance of order emerges from underlying processes which are random and unpredictable
How does Dawkins challenge the teleological argument?
A watchmaker has precise intentions whereas natural selection is unconscious and unpredictable
How does Lovelocks’ Gaia Hypothesis challenge the teleological argument?
Sees the world as a self regulating process. maintaining life without need for external influence
Challenges to teleological arguments are effective:
- Using human experience to conjure analogies for God is insufficient evidence (Hume)
- There is no evidence of intention
- Teleological arguments are outdated and unnecessary in the modern age
Challenges to teleological arguments are ineffective:
- Science can be used in support or denial or teleological arguments, leaving it to personal preference
- Contemporary scientists such as Polkinghorne support the design concept
- Scientific theories are equally as fallible
Cosmological arguments are effective in the 21st Century:
- They answer why the universe was began, not just how
- Additional dimension of faith provides a personal element of hope and comfort
- A posteriori evidence gives the argument a scientific basis
Cosmological arguments are ineffective in the 21st Century:
- Disproved by Big Bang theory and quantum mechanics
- Aquinas flawed by 1st Law of Motion
- Cosmological arguments originated 2,500 in ancient Greek philosophy
How does Newton’s 1st Law of Motion challenge Aquinas?
Inertia replaces the need for an unmoved mover
Scientific explanations are more persuasive than philosophical:
- Science is based in rational empiricism
- Quantum physics suggests that, at a sub-atomic level, a cause and effect understanding is not necessarily relevant
- Science is easily and widely accepted, not subject to faith or culture
Scientific explanations are not more persuasive than philosophical:
- It is not possible to disprove God
- Science cannot comment on anything before the Big Bang, leaving a gap for a creator
- Philosophy is often more accessible and persuasive
Teleological arguments are effective:
- Discoverable to the casual observer
- Rationally explains complexity with design and intention
- Denies the unlikely possibility of coincidence
Teleological arguments are ineffective:
- Do flaws suggest and inept creator?
- Dawkins argued it promotes a childish world view
- It is arrogant to claim we can understand the ways of the universe
The Kalam argument is convincing:
- Scientific information supports the notion of a finite universe
- Rationally fits in with theistic interpretations of creation
- Contemporary views agree on a starting point
The Kalam argument is not convincing:
- Pointless arguing theistically about a finite universe as it is already supported atheistically
- The need for a cause is not supported empirically
- Contradictorily states that infinity is impossible but God is infinite
Inductive arguments are effective:
- A posteriori and synthetic bases them in accessible evidence
- Universal and testable
- Allows for the possibility of more than one correct answer
Inductive arguments are ineffective:
- Easily challenged by alternative evidence
- Possible to accept the evidence but deny its conclusions
- Premises do not lead to definite conclusions
Fallacy of Composition - Russell
‘Just because every human has a mother does not mean the whole of humanity has a mother’
Watchmaker - Dawkins
‘The only watchmaker in nature is the blind forces of physics’
First Way - Aquinas
‘If that by which it is put in motion be itself put in motion, then this also must be put in motion by another’
Second Way - Aquinas
‘There is no case known in which a thing is found to be the efficient cause of itself; for so it would be prior to itself which is impossible’
Third Way - Aquinas
‘there must exist something the existence of which is necessary’
Fifth Way - Aquinas
‘some intelligent being exists by whom all natural things are directed to their end; and this being we call God’
Watchmaker - Paley
‘the contrivances of nature surpass the contrivances of art, in the complexity, subtlety, and curiosity of the mechanism’
Anthropic principle - Tennant
‘the multitude of interwoven adaptations by which the world is constituted… ought but purposive intelligence’
Kalam argument - Craig
‘the creator of the universe must be a personal being who freely chooses to create the world’
Challenge - Russell
‘I would say the universe is just there and that’s all’
Where does the word ‘anthropic’ derive from?
Greek ‘anthropos’ meaning human being
What was Tennant one of the first philosophers to do?
Put forward a design argument in reference to evolution
What was Tennant’s work and when was it written?
- ‘Philosophical Theology’
- 1928
