Individual Differences Flashcards
1
Q
2010 equality act
A
9 protected characteristics - Race, Age, gender reassignment, Sex, Religion, Maternity/ Pregnancy, Disability, marriage etc, Sexual orientation
2
Q
Sheldon?
A
Somatotypes
3
Q
Ectomorph?
A
typically thin, introverted, inhibited, private
4
Q
Endomorph?
A
carry weight around the middle, fun-loving, social, affectionate
5
Q
Mesomorph?
A
athletic, adventurous, assertive, risk taker
6
Q
Holtzan inkblot test
A
addresses issues in rorschach test, specific criteria including reatcion time, rejection, place, space, and form of ink blots
7
Q
Allport (1937)
A
trait approach, cardinal traits, central traits, secondary traits
8
Q
Searching for core traits (Allport)
A
more than 4,000 words in the english language describing different personality traits
9
Q
Raymond Cattell?
A
reduced 4,000 words from allport to 171, used factor analysis to reduce the list to just 16 traits. Sixteen personality factor questionnaire
10
Q
Eysenck’s factor analysis
A
largely based off work with soldiers in maudsley psychiatric hospital, belief of an inherited nervous system. Extraversion v Introversion, Neuroticism v Stability. Later normality v Psychoticism
11
Q
The big 5?
A
OCEAN - Openness, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism
12
Q
MMPI?
A
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
13
Q
Parts of the MMPI?
A
Principle subscales, Supplementary scales, validity scales.
14
Q
Principle subscales of MMPI?
A
10 major personality dimensions tested over 338 questions
15
Q
Supplementary subscales of MMPI?
A
12 subscales assessing other aspects of personality
16
Q
Validity scales MMPI
A
4 scales. Cannot say scale, Lie Scale, Infrequency scale, Correction scale
17
Q
Clonginer (1994)?
A
Temperament and Character inventory (TCI)
Novelty seeking, harm avoidance, reward dependence, persistence,
Self directedness, cooperativeness, self-transcendence
18
Q
What is intelligence? (Gottfredson, 1997)
A
ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas etc
19
Q
Galton (1869)?
A
Hereditary nature of intelligence
20
Q
Binet (1904)?
A
first intelligence test
21
Q
Spearman?
A
‘g’ general intelligence
22
Q
Cattell’s multi factor theory of intelligence?
A
crystallised intelligence - factual knowlege, Fluid intelligence - ability to solve novel problems
23
Q
Gardner - theory of Multiple Intelligences (MI)
A
Linguistic, spatial, logic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, bodily-kineasthetic etc
24
Q
Social attitudes?
A
Key personality variables affecting reactions to social events
25
Adorno et al (1950)
F-scale and authoritarian personality - excessive conformity. intolerance of others, rigid stereotyped thought patterns
26
Shields (1976)?
found that monozygotic (identical) twins were significantly more alike on the Introvert – Extrovert (E) and Psychoticism (P) dimensions than dizygotic (non-identical) twins
27
Sidanius and Pratto (1999)
Aggregated individual discrimination, unnoticed acts such as anti lgbtq+ comments, not promoting a black person, etc
28
Sarason (1980)?
test anxiety scale, 27 items t/f scale, higher score = higher anxiety
29
Mandler and Sarason (1952)?
power of feedback. improved low TA scores, reduced high TA scores
30
Kolic-Vehovec and Roncevic (2003)?
gifted students, same perfectionism and equal academic self concept, but lower levels of TA
31
Nelson et al (2015)
50 with, 50 without Dyslexia. Self reported TA higher in D students, but no differences in physical test anxiety
32
Spielberger (1983)?
state and trait anxiety
33
Spielberger (1983) state anxiety?
temporary emotional state in response to threateming stimuli
34
Spielberger (1983) trait anxiety?
characteristic pattern of heightened level of arousal to a variety of stimuli. internal condition of individual
35
Anxiety disorders?
GAD, panic disorder, Phobias, Social Anxiety Disorder
36
GAD?
excessive persistent worry for more than 6 months about many events etc. trouble controlling said worry. restlessness or tires easily, muscle tension, sleep disturbance
37
Prevalence of GAD
~3% prevalence in any given year, ~6% in lifetime. high comorbidity with depression. 2x as many females
38
Treatment of anxiety - CBT?
modest results only
39
Treatment of anxiety, MBCT?
segal et al (2002) accepting thoughts rather than eliminating them
40
Craigie et al (2008)
significant improvement of 23 GAD patients after 9 weekly 2 hour group sessions of MBCT. 6 week and 3 motnh follow up sessions
41
Evans et al (2008)
MBCT can compensate for CBT residual symptoms of GAD
42
Panic disorder?
approx 1.5-3.5% symptoms develop suddenly and peak within 10 minutes, hypervenyilation, palpitations, sweating, shaking, fear of dying etc. Attacks not due to another disorder
43
Huang et al (2010)?
31.7% of panic disorder outpatients had suicidal ideation
44
Carrera et al (2006)
examined personality traits of those with panic disorder - similar results in OCEAN, higher scores of neuroticism
45
Phobic disorder?
persistent fear of an object or situation that is excessive or unreasonable
46
Social Anxiety Disorder?
Marked fear of social situations fear of humiliation, negative self appraisal. exposure to situation provikes anxiety. Knowledge fear is unreasonable. Avoids situations. interferes with normal routine. functioning
47
Social Anxiety Disorder Prevalence?
3-13%, usually preceded with shyness in childhood
48
Savoia et al (2010)
108 participants with SAd completed clonginers TCI, sig lower novelty seeking, higher harm avoidance, lower persistence
49
Lochner et al (2007)?
SAD had sig higher harm avoidance than controls
50
Components of shyness?
Affective - Psychophysiological expressions
Cognitive - Excessive self consciousness, negative self-evaluation, irrational beliefs about the self
Behavioural - verbal and non verbal social avoidance
Physiological - blushing, heart rate, muscle tension etc
51
Publicly shy
display overt expressions of discomfort in social setting
52
Privately shy?
appear overtly social but experience internal bodily discomfort
53
Socially anxious shy?
distress pertaining to cog characteristics of social anxiety
54
Heiser et al (2009)
highly shy people w/ social phobia, highly shy with social phobia, non- shy people. On social fears, avoidance of social situations and negative thoughts: social phobics > high shy w/o sp > non shy
55
Dyslexia?
approx 7% prevalence, slightly higher in males, slight higher risk of depression relative to peers
56
Subtypes of dyslexia?
surface - difficulty reading irregular words, like cough and through
Phonological - difficulty reading pronouncable non-words, like chirt but not shirt
57
Demonet et al (2004)
phonological theory of dyslexia. dyslexia caused by phonological representation deficits. difficulty representing, storing and retrieving speech sounds. Weakened at the phoneme level
58
Phonological awareness?
knowledge of, and ability to manipulate the sound structure of words
59
Rapid automatised naming
speed with which a series of familiar stimuli can be named aloud - visual-verbal connections
60
Reading fluency
ability to read single words and connected text, sufficient accurace and speed for comprehension
61
Dyscalculia?
learning difficulty related to maths/ arithmetic, often concurs with dyslexia/ ADHD Pi. 3-6% of children
62
Landerl et al (2009)
8-10 year olds, 42 control, 21 dyslexic, 20 dyscalculic, 26 both. phonological awareness, phono and VS short term and working memory, number processing skills assessed
63
Results of Landerl et al (2009)?
no reading/ arithmetic interaction, indicating two distinct cognitive deficits
64
Weiner, Perry and Magnusson (1988)
illness included cancer and blindness v drug abuse and obesity. perceived controllable situations receieved higher ratings of blame and less pity
65
Corrigan et al (2002)
152 participants rated disabilities on controllability and stability.
controllability: cocaine addiction > psychosis and AIDS> Depression and Cancer
Intellectual disability viewed most negatively (stability)
66
Corrigan et al (2013)
those who internalise their mental health issues often have low self esteem
67
Coming out with Mental illness scale? (COMIS)
yes - gain acceptance from others, be true to myself, in the past stayed in closet to hide personal life and self shame
no - in the future i will come out the closet to gain acceptance from others.
68
Matthews (1996)
religion is an organised belief of systems, practices and symbols, designed to enable closeness to God
69
Definition of religiousness?
Levin & Schiller (1987) - degree of one's involvement and personal significance attached to such a system
70
Koenig et al (1988)
dimensions of religiousness 1. faith, 2. rituals 3. experiences 4. religious knowledge 5. community
71
Allport and Ross (1967)
intrinsic religiosity - religion is the framework for all aspects of life
72
I/E R scale?
measures intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity - Masters and Bergin, 1992 --> intrinisc religiosity negatively correlated with depression, anxiety, obsessions and compulsions
73
Masters and Knestel (2011)
intrinsic religiosity - lower smoking and alcohol behaviours, less likely to be divorced, better health
74
Allport and Kramer (1946)
non-religious students less racist than those identifying as catholic or protestant
75
Kirkpatrick (1949)
| Stouffer (1955)
religious individuals less humanitarian
--
Church-attendees more intolerant in general
76
Allport et al (1967)
church attendees more ethnically prejudiced than non attendees. however a significant minority less prejudice. extrinsic more prejudice, intrinsic less
77
Brambilla et al (2013)
self-determination theory - how we endorse our religious views affects our behaviour
78
Brambilla (2013) introjected religiosity
socially pressured beliefs, approval from others, negative effects on mental health etc
79
Brambilla (2013) Identified religiosity
personal convictions deeply valued, positive effects on mental health etc
80
Ryan et al (1993)
Christian Religious Internalisation Scale
81
Saroglou et al (2013)
2 groups, text praising tech progress, text by gay person praising rights progress. then groups asked to allocate hot sauce for author's taste test. more hot sauce towards text 2's author by religious students
82
Lopes et al (2015)?
53 non musilim UG students, scales on paranoia, death anxiety, cultural mistrust, islamaphobia, IAT. 2 groups, one watched video on london bomb attacks, other on children, tech and sleep. no association between news condition and social paranoia, death anxiety and prejudice
83
Brexit and islamaphobia
When immigrants perceived as outgroup and threat to in-group, people more likely to reject European integration • Perceived Islamic threat added to this • However, Islamophobia negatively correlated with intention to leave • Identification with national in-group positively correlated with perceived symbolic and realistic threat
84
Ellis (1980)?
Religion and irrational beliefs
need to be loved by a significant figure
as long as achieving within the church, outside matters unimportant
concepts of sin and punishment
God protects us from bad things
can only regulate happiness if we turn to God
85
Religion and violence?
1978 mass murder suicide in jonestown, 900+
| 1997 Heaven's Gate - 39
86
Cults?
group with socially deviant norms, popular since 60's members pleaded not guilty by insanity for crimes committed under their beliefs
87
Opinions on Cults?
sympathisers - represent alternative cultures
| critics -psychologically harmful, dissociation, B+W thinking, PTSD
88
Aghababaei et al (2016)
religion reduces death anxiety
89
Mannheimer and Hill (2015)
1504 conservative protestants completed measures on distress and depressive symptoms and anxiety.
those who deviated and didnt attend regularly or read scripture regularly showed higher levels of psychological distress etc
90
Subjective well being, religion and science?
religiosity correlated with high subjective well being, and there is a positive correlation between attitudes towards science and technology, and SWB
91
OCD and religion?
a relationship bhas been suggested - type of denomination, e.g. fundamentalist/ liberal - rules/ structure and level of religiosity - however solid research on this link is sparse
92
Rachman (2006)?
obsessive thought can arise without coming into contact with a physical contaminant. Perceived impurity, immorality. "Dirty Kiss" paradigm
93
Bilecki and Inozu (2018)
Highly religious + low religious muslim females. presented with consensual v nonconsensual kiss scenario. non > sig higher mental distress, int(ext)ernal negative emotions, thought man to be immoral
94
Highly religious group in Bilecki and Inozu (2018)
more feelings of mental contamination, regardless of kissing condition - stronger urges to wash after scenario
95
Miller and Hedges (2007/8)
scrupulosity - cognition > pathological obessions related to moral religious issues, extreme tunnel vision, mental rumination, guilt etc)
Thought action fusion - sexual thought = sexual deviance
96
Allen and Wang (2014)
Adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism - increased scrupulosity and maladaptive P predicted decreased quality of life and increased anxiety and depression. fearful of sin?
97
McCullogh, Tsang and Brion (2003)
Agreeableness and conscientiousness positively correlate with religiosity
but also openness, which was surprising as it is expected to conflict with religiosity
98
Five factor model?
big 5, each trait measured on a continua, combined to form representation of personality
99
Inventories to test the big 5?
NEO-PI-R (Mcrae et al, 2005)
Big Five Inventory 2 (John et al, 1991)
BFI-2 S (Soto and John, 2017b)
100
Types of personality stability?
Heterotypic, homotypic, measurement, mean level and rank order.
101
Heterotypic stability?
consistency of underlying attributes, even though behaviour to display them may change, such as the behaviour that displays shyness may change over time
102
Homotypic stability?
amount of similarity in observable characteristics over time, e.g. stress response
103
Absolute stability?
measurement stability - consistency of the level of the same personality attribute over time, e.g. scoring a 20 on a stress test at 25 and 45
104
Differential Stability?
Rank Order - consistency of a personality trait in terms of an individuals rank ordering, compared to their peers.
105
Measuring personality stability cross sectionally?
can study mean level stability, but can be confounded by cohort effects
106
Measuring personality stability longitudinally
can study rank order and mean level stability, however confounding link between attrition and conscientiousness
107
Mcrae and Costa (1994)
mean levels of personality traits reach final levels around 30. after this changes are few and subtle, of which most are consistent with declining activity with age
108
Roberts et al (2006)
meta analysis of mean level stability, 92 longitudinal included. Extraversion split into social dominance and social vitality
social dominance - consistent pattern of increase till 40
social vitality - increases at college age, decreases 22-30, then again 60-70
various other changes, lots of changes beginning around 20
109
Mcrae et al (2000), Mcrae (1999)?
personality changes driven by genetic predisposition, follow a fixed path, seen cross culturally
110
Deary et al (2012)?
Correlation between intelligence at 11 and 65 at .62! But IQ corrected for age.
111
Flynn Effect?
Fluid intelligence increases ~15 points per generation, crystallised ~9 points. Environmental influences? schooling, parental styles, visual and technical environment, nutrition etc but frankly not all that much of an effect
112
Flynn Effect: Cognitive Stimulation Hypothesis?
Interaction of genetics and environment, higher IQ individuals seek out stimulating environments (and place their children in them)
113
Teasdale & Owen (2005)
some evidence that the Flynn effect is slowing or reversing
114
Anderston et al (2017)
Language and social background questionnaire - defining bilingualism. provides cut off scores but it is time consuming.
115
Papp and Greenberg (2013)
Seven point scale to define bilingualism, 4 or more = bilingual. but doesn't factor in multilingualism, or bimodal bilingualism. ( an individual or community's bilingual competency in at least one oral language and at least one sign language)
116
Bialystok et al (2004)
bilingualism advantage to executive function, however Bialystok (2010) found that vocab in both languages was smaller, although doesn't really affect education
117
Gollan and Acenas (2004)
--
Pyers et al (2009)
bilinguals report more tip of the tongue phenomenom, bimodals too
118
Linguistic relativity?
Reines and Prinz, that language shapes the way we think
119
Framing effects?
Keysar et al (2012) - native speakers (of the language the situation was written in) were far more likely to pick the sure option, if the gains were framed rather than the losses.
120
Moral foreign language effect?
Not about a lack of understanding, language switching, in/out group status etc. Its more about psychological distance, reduced sensitivity to the negative emotion, enhanced by lower proficiency in foreign language
121
Feelings of difference in bilinguals?
often feel as if they have a personality for each language. Dewaele & Nakano (2017) often report feeling less emotional and more logical in their LX
122
Feelings of difference?
Wilson (2008) FoD neg correlated with extraversion, Ozanska-Ponkwia (2012) found opposite
Grosjean (2015) linguistic and cultural multiplicity are independent, can be monolingual and bicultural.
123
Terracciano et al (2005)
National character ratings are reliable, but don't reflect actual national character (average)
124
The leaky pipeline?
metaphor for the way that women disappear from geeky careers (e.g. stem), out the leaky pipe so few make it to the end.
125
APA report on Women in Psychology? (2017)?
~75% psych UG are female, 56% of male psych faculty are professors, only 28% of female faculty. only 18% of journal editors are female.
126
Lynn (1994/8), Lynn and Irwing (2004)
male advantage of 2-5 IQ points, also suggested mens brains are bigger when standardised for body size. but tests should be standardised.
127
Jensen (1969)
no difference overall, men excel in some areas, women in others
128
Various spatial abilities?
mental rotation, spatial perception (locating horizontal or vertical), spatial visualisation (imagine result of folding paper 3 times), Spatio temporal ability (make judgements on arrival times of objects)
129
Halpern and LaMay (2000)
men have a large advantage in spatial tasks except spatial visualisation. young girls more proficient in language skills
130
Wai et al (2009)
Spatial ability +mathematic perfomance predicts perfomance in maths intensive fields, but theres no lack of female maths grads and PhDs, (Ceci and Williams (2010)
131
Wai et al (2010)
women batter than men in verbal reasoning and writing ability
132
Baron-Cohen (2003)
Men BPredisposed to systemize etc, links to foetal androgens, worth keeping in mind testosterone is not the only difference between men and women
133
Spelke (2005)
studies do not support difference in infant perception (object/person orientation)
134
O'dea (2018)
analysed 1.6 million students' grades, lower variation for girls, smaller mean and variation difference n stem subjects, by the time a girl graduates, she is just as likely to have earned high enough grades to pursue a stem career
135
Hyde (2005)
Gender similarity hypothesis - where there are differences, very small effect sizes, 78% small or close to zero
136
Univeristy of glasgow gender -
44,500 women, 53,000 men. 75,500 female professors, 81,500 male
137
Sexism?
benevolent - women should be protected and men should be the protectors
modern - Gender discrimination no longer exists and women are asking too much
138
Sani and Quaratana(2017)?
gender roles are expectations and beliefs about appropriate roles for men and women in public and private spheres
139
Gender roles affect men too?
12 male suicides a day, 878 male students between 2001 and 2017 (england and wales)
140
Scales of gender roles?
Attitudes towards women scale (Spence and Helmreich, 1978)
Sex role egalitarian scale (Beere et al, 1984)
Modern Sexism Scale (Swim et al, 1995)
141
Modern Sexism Scale?
Swim et al (1995) "It is rare to see women treated in a sexist manner on Television" etc
142
Gender role belief scale?
e.g. "It is disrespectful for a man to swear in the presence of a lady", "women should not expect men to offer them seats on the bus" etc
143
Social predictors - interest based (gender roles)
men are less likely to believe that gender equality will benefit them, even though it would
144
Marks et al (2012)?
families with low income and parental education adopt more traditional gender roles
145
Kane(2000)
AAs have more egalitarian attitudes than WAmericans, although largely focused on labour force participation
146
Biological essentialism?
Members of a category share fundamental or essential qualities that make them what they are. Gender differences are discrete, biologically based, fixed, inherent, historically invariant and highly informative.
147
Gender Essentialism?
Belief that gender roles are fixed, associated with preference for traditional gender roles (Kray et al, 2017)
148
Skewes et al (2018)
higher scores of gender essentialism ass with less egalitarian views. Independent of poilitical orientation or general views on inequality
149
British social Attitudes survey, Moral Issues (2018)
82% not prejudice at all against trans people
53% condemn transprejudice completely
41% said fully qual trans person should be employed as primary school teacher
43% as police officer
150
problems with measuring attitudes to trans people?
language can quickly become outdated and offensive (Hill and Willoughby, 2005)
151
Education and trans acceptance?
Degree - 64%, A levels - 63%, No Qual - 35%
152
Predictors of transprejudice?
Contact, Authoritarianism, essentialist beliefs, dislike of ambiguity,
Authoritarianism, conservatism and religiousness - Cragan and Sumerau, 2015
Threatened masculinity strong predictor - Harrison and Michelson, 2018
153
British social attitudes survey 2018 - attitude to sex?
75% accepting of premarital sex in 2016
154
Twenge et al (2015)?
american general social survey - increased acceptance of premarital, teen and same-sex sex, decreased acceptance of extra-marital.
155
Sexual activity and personality?
Extraversion - ^ sexual activity, risk taking. \/ dysfunction/ dissatisfaction
Neuroticism - ^ dissatisfaction, neg emotional experience,
Openness - ^ sexual orientation and liberal attitudes
Conscientiousness - \/ risk taking agression and sexual dysfunction
Agreeableness - \/ dysfunction, risk taking and aggression
156
Petersen and Hyde (2010)
emphasising gender similarities in sexuality contribute to gender equality in sexual expression, reduces the double standard and pressure to conform to gendered norms of submissive female and dominant male
157
gender differences in attitudes to homosexuality?
men more negative about gay men and more positive about lesbians, heterosexual women similar attitudes (vice versa)
158
Burke et al (2017)
need for closure and dislike of ambiguity predicts sexual prejudice towards LGB, particularly B
159
remember that experiences are different for all aspects of LGBTQIA+
you know that shit
| also intersectionality
