Developmental Flashcards
1
Q
Rochat (2002)?
A
Infancy> neonatal antecedents of empathy Toddlers> representation of self Early childhood > Development of TOM Adolescence > Social Intelligence Later Life > Empathy and Ageing
2
Q
Sagi and Hoffman (1976)
A
2 day old neonates distinguish between natural cry and synthetic cry
3
Q
Field et al (1982)
A
infants imitate, discriminate and display primary emotions
4
Q
Brothers (1989)
A
Imitation is a precursor for brain’s capacity for empathy
5
Q
Rochat stage 1?
A
automatically triggered and biologically determined. Sex/ Individual differences in social perception and responsivity also evident within the first 24 hours
6
Q
2 months onwards (empathy and social)?
A
social smiling, complex dialogical engagement, face to face exchanges with caretakers
7
Q
Rochat (1999)?
A
Begin to co-construct shared experiences via imitation and reciprocal games
8
Q
Frith and Frith (2003)?
A
Smile more towards people than objects, and react reflexively to movement of gaze
9
Q
Rochat Stage 3?
A
Approx 6-9 months
Attempt to share their attention with others,
Moves beyond face-to-face exchanges
10
Q
Carpenter et al (1998)?
A
Developing so-called “secondary intersubjectivity”
11
Q
Rochat Stage 4?
A
Approx 14 months onwards
Identify as unique, mirror recognition
developed projective empathy
12
Q
Agnetta and Rochat, 2004?
A
Start discriminating Imitators
13
Q
Bischof-Kohler (1994)?
A
Self objectification (distinction between self and others) is the only essential precondition of empathy
14
Q
Central milestone to empathy?
A
15-18 months - toddlers show 3 behaviours indicative of the emergence of the consciousness and the meta representation of the self
- Mirror recognition
- Personal Pronouns
- Distress response comforting behaviour
15
Q
Rochat Stage 5?
A
24 months onwards Self-conscious emotions Systematic comparisons - categorisation and conceptualisation of the self in relation to others Embarrassment emerges Shame, guilt, pride etc
16
Q
Rochat stage 6?
A
4-6 years - fully developed awareness of mental states etc - ToM and false belief recognition - capable of adopting a theoretical stance towards others
17
Q
Egeland and Sroufe (1981)
A
Cognitive delay during infancy, Attachment problems and social withdrawal
As children, more islated and withdrawn, lower self esteem. more negative and less positive affect
18
Q
Pollack et al (2000)
A
Problems in emotion regulation and discrimination
19
Q
Manly et al (2001)
A
maternal abuse - children exhibit behavioural and attachment problems
20
Q
Teicher et al (2000)
A
maternal abuse - Increased incidence of psychiatric disorders
21
Q
Widome and Maxfield (2001)
A
maternal abuse - juvenile delinquency and adult criminal behaviour
22
Q
Developmental disorders that contain a subgroup with empathy disorder?
A
ASD’s, ADHD, DCD, PDD-NOS, Tourettes, OCD & OCPD, BPD, NPD etc, ED’s, Selective Mutism, Childhood SZ, Bipolar, Conduct disorders.
23
Q
ADHD with and without DCD? (empathy)
A
57% of ADHD with DCD had ‘psychotic disorders’ (compared to 1.2% in gen.pop.)
24
Q
Eating disorders and Empathy?
A
A sub group of individuals suffering with anorexia nervosa also have major problems with empathy
25
Anorexia and Empathy?
1 in 6 may have an ASD, another 1 in 6 may have clinically significant empathy problems
26
Genetic and biological basis for psychopathy?
recent evidence for a degeneration of white matter connectivity in the Uncinate Fasciculus (UF) that connects the amygdala and the Orbitofrontal cortex
(Craig et al, 2009)
27
Kohlberg?
Developed a theory of moral development, piggybacking on piaget
28
Heinz dilemma ?
Man's wife is sick, one drug can save her. costs £200 to produce, druggist sells for £2000. Man offers £1000, druggist says no, so man steps in and steals drug
29
Stage 1 and Heinz?
Obedience - heinz should not steal the medicine because its against the law and he will go to prison. OR heinz should steal it because its only worth £200 and he offered over that, and he's not stealing anything else
30
Stage 2 and Heinz?
Self interest - Heinz should steal the medicine becaise he will be much happier if he saves his wife even if he ends up in prison. OR he shouldn't because prison is awful and he doesn't want to be there
31
Stage 3 and Heinz?
Conformity - Heinz should steal the medicine because his wife expects it, he should be a good husband OR he should not because he is not a criminal and he shouldn't be expected to break the law
32
Stage 4 and Heinz?`
Law and Order - The law prohibits it, stealing is illegal.
| Or he should steal it but then go to prison and pay back the druggist
33
Stage 5 and Heinz?
Human rights - Heinz should steal the medicine because everyone has the right to life OR he should not because the druggist
34
Colby et al (1983)
Studies the reasonings of the decisions in the Heinz dilemma, originally cross sectional but ended up being interviewed every 3 years for 27 years.
35
The 3 Superordinate categories of Kohlberg's theory of moral development?
Preconventional.
Conventional
Postconventional
36
Preconventional category of Kohlberg?
Self > infancy, Pre-school.
| Concerned with self interest, judgements formed around need and points of view
37
Conventional category of Kohlberg?
Family + Community > School age
| Emphasis on conformity, societal/ cultural pressure
38
Post Conventional category of Kohlberg?
Community + Humanity > adolescence to adulthood
Differing values between different people, understanding of human and fundamental rights. Abstract reasoning based on universal principles
39
Applications of Kohlberg?
Drove research in
Distributive Justice
Perspective Taking
Interpersonal Understanding etc
40
Problems with Kohlberg?
Ecological validity - Hypothetical scenarios have a disconnect with real life. Also originally cross sectional but longitudinal follow ups supported the theory
41
Rest (1979)
1/14 slipped backwards through moral stages
42
Challenge to Kohlberg: justice
Is justice fundamental, Kohlberg suggested yes, yet Gilligan (1977) suggests caring for others is more important
43
Sex bias in Kohlberg?
Inherent sex bias, girls placed at stage 3, boys at stage 4, their caring for others makes them 'morally deficient' >:C
44
Sex differences in Moral reasoning?
Kohlberg's model neglects a moral principle emphasising interpersonal relationships and care. Justice and rights theoretically aligned with males, welfare and care with females. Empirical evidence of this is inconsistent and highly variable
45
Jaffee and Hyde (2000)
No real evidence of sex specific differences in moral orientation
46
Social cognitive domain theory?
Elliot Turiel, no stages of moral development. distinct domains of social judgement.
47
Social cognitive domain theory - 3 domains?
Moral, conventional and personal.
distinction can be attained early in a child's development, around 3-4.
Distinction is universal, grounded on ration criteria
Result of interaction between individual and characteristics of the situation
48
Problems with SCD theory?
What about culture and religion?
| Also doesn't address non-prototypical moral issues
49
Beyond Kohlberg?
research broadened to include empathy, sympathy, prosocial behaviour. Integrated biology, genetics with socialisation.
Biologically driven propensity for an affective core that is elaborated on by context and socialisation
50
"New Synthesis" for moral psychology?
Social psychology, Neuroscience, and evolutionary psychology - Affect is primary, Judgement is automatic - Morality is a function of society that holds it all together
51
Aim of cognitive development?
Describe the changes that occur in our early cognitive development & evaluate the theroies which try to explain that development
52
Functional Invariants (Cog dev)
Organisation - predisposition to group particular experiences/ observation together, building more complex structures. Adaption - the process by which we respond to new/ unfamiliar experiences -> assimilation and accommodation
53
Adaptation?
Made up assimilation and accommodation - twin processes indissociable from each other
54
Assimilation?
The integration of experience into existing mental structures
55
Accommodation?
The modification of mental structures by experience
56
Functional invariants - Organisation?
It is by adapting to things that thought organises itself and it is by organising itself that it structures things (Piaget, 1952)
When a substantial number of changes in schemata occur - move to next stage of development
57
Schemata?
The structure that underlies cognitions, perception action etc. Organised abilities and dispositions to behaviour. Develop through adaptation. Accommodation changes them, reality is interpreted through them (assimilation).
58
Sensorimotor stage?
Birth to 2 years - Key feature is action. Initially infants movements are reflexive, not deliberate or planned. Sig. achievement is means end behaviour
59
Secondary developments in the Sensorimotor stage?
Child's gradual separation of self from external environment.
Object permanence - end of this stage s signalled by onset of deferred imitation
60
The object concept?
The development of Object Permanence
Stage 1 and 2 > child egocentric, no real sense that object are independent entities from self.
Stage 3 > focus on action on external world. Will retrieve partially hidden objects, action not object permanence
61
Stage 4 of object permanence?
Increased coordination of means end behaviour. Allows for object search. Limited by the A not B, AB or stage 4 error, Child still sees object as extension of action
62
Stage 5 of object permanence?
Exploratory behaviour leads to better search, but object still dependent on action. Invisible displacement error. If the journey to the object's hiding place is not directly perceptible to the child, the child fails to find it.
63
Stage 6 of Object permanence?
Symbolic function! yay!
64
Object permanence earlier in the dark?
Hoods and Willatts (1986) 4 month old infants watched objects. Lights turned off, infants would reach towards object in the dark
65
Clifton et al (1991)?
6 months old reach for for object in the dark, when object made a noise. Infants took into consideration the size of invisible object
66
Bower (1982)
change in heart rate if object seen, screen pulled across, then object gone. Children surprised at absence of object
67
Baillargeon et al (1985)
Screen fell towards box, in some conditions it appeared to move through the box, infants watched for longer at the impossible event.
68
Problems with Piaget's account of object permanence?
Methodological - studies based on search task, may be reliant on more than object permanence
69
Ahmed & Ruffman (1998)
Infants will look in the right place in the A not B test even when reaching in the wrong location
70
Bower and Wishart (1972)
infants who failed to retrieve an object under an opaque cup succeeded when the cup was transparent - therefore have motor abilities
71
A not B errors an issue with memory?
Nah, Bremner and Knowles (1984) still obtained errors when the object was fully visible at point B
72
Ballairgeon and Devos (1991)
Impossible event with short carrot, tall carrot and a screen. Infants at 3.5 months showed more visual interest at impossible event
73
Brain activity and OP?
Orekhova (2001) changes in alpha activity during anticipation of reappearance of an adult in peekaboo
Diamond (1985/88) immaturity of frontal cortex in early infancy means infants struggle to connect information to action, Therefore even with new knowledge they find it hard to stop old response
74
Pre-Operational Thinking?
Specific cognitive limitations, lack of conservation of quantities, egocentrism, animism
75
Conservation tasks?
Children struggle to understand that the quantity is the same when in a different shaped container, or the same number of objects in a different shape etc.
76
Irreversibility?
Focus on static states rather than transformation. lack of mental flexibility. Pre operational children fail to comprehend rules/ operations that govern thought
77
Rules of thought pre-operational children can't understand?
Negation - an action can be negated by an opposite action
| Compensation - A change in one dimension can be offset by a change in another
78
Centration?
Pre operational children focus on one dimension of a scene, e.g. height = age (Piaget, 1969) - larger pictures of children deemed to be older
79
3 mountains task?
Demonstrates cognitive dev and egocentrism
pre 4 yrs (conceptual stage) - no real understanding of the task
4-5 (intuitive stage) - failis to distinguish between own view and other's
80
5 onwards inn the 3 mountains task?
5-6 (later intuitive) - aware that viewpoints differ but don't know what other view will be
7-8 (early concrete operations) - understanding of content of other viewpoint, some issues with transformations
8+ clear non-egocentric answers
81
Piaget (1923)
44% of speech in 6-7 year olds is egocentric
82
Animism?
the attribution of characteristics of living (animate) things to non-animate things. Child doesn't comprehend that the rules that apply to themselves don't apply to inanimate objects
83
Moore and Frye (1986)?
Naughty teddy experiment, Counters added, then naughty teddy added another, children would often ignore changes to the number of counters by the bear
84
Problems with Piaget's experiments? (Rose and Blank, 1974)
improved performance in tasks when only using second question, may not understand why being asked the same question twice
85
Is development domain specific or general?
Piaget suggested development was based on development of logical structures and so is general, however it is still unclear whether children can occupy two stages at once, e.g. preoperational in one task and concrete operational in another.
86
Gender?
the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women
87
Hines et al (2015)
individuals exposed to atypical concentrations of androgenic hormones prenatally, have been consistently shown to display more male type juvenile playing behaviour, alterations in sexual activity and gender identity, and tendencies to engage in physically aggressive behaviour
88
Atypical chromosomes?
Turner's Syndrome (XO), Klinefelter (XXY) etc
89
Bao and Swaab (2011)
Prenatal homrones and genes have shown to influence gender identification
90
Theories of gender identity?
Psychoanalytic theory, social learning theory, cognitive development theory, gender schema theory
91
Self socialisation theories of gender?
children seek information about what gender means, how does it apply to them? awareness of two sexes and associated with qualities and stereotypes
92
Quinn et al (2002)?
by 3-4 months, infants can distinguish between male and female faces , by 6 months they can discriminate faces and voices by sex. 10 months, stereotyped associations between women and men, and gender typed objects, appear.
93
Developmental trajectories of gender identity?
18-24 months - able to label gender, categorise themselves and others correctly. 2-4 years recognition of gender differences, use of gendered prounouns, 5-6 explicit declaration of gender + stereotypes
94
Outside the gender binary?
Even if gender identity corresponds with the assigned at birth sex, there can be variations in how compatible with gender roles an identity is, how central gender identity is, how gender is expressed
95
Prevalence of gender dysphoria?
between approx 0.5% and 1.2%
96
Treating dysphoria?
3 approaches, corrective, supportive, affirmative
individual, couples and family therapy, peer support, cross sex hormone treatment, puberty suppression, gender confirmation surgery
97
Leelah Alcorn
very public suicide in 2014, due to parents not supporting her, posted note on tumblr, still misgendered at her funeral.
98
what is a transition (Dev psych)
depends on context, child and dev psych researchers would consider transition to be changes in basic organising, biological substrates, psychological structures etc. These changes are intrinsic to the individual, universal and normative.
For life researchers it would be a change in circumstance that lead to long term change, e.g. age or marriage etc
99
Elder et al (1991)
| Leonard and Burns (2006)
military service as a turning point, is dependent on age --
| Nature of turning points shifted around midlife
100
Uggen (2000) & Uggen and staff (2001)?
Employment is a turning point for older offenders, but not for younger
101
Environmental context?
Historical events, cultural practices, racial/ethnic/socioeconomic status context, and social capital. Can impact the nature of turning points
102
Human agency?
can affect whether a situation is considered a turning point. "making a choice" vs "something happened to me"
103
Curran et al (1998)
Alcohol use in young adults, first marriage associated with reduced consumption
104
Moneyham and Connor (1995)
qualitative study on substance abuse in men. Loss, health changes and interpersonal changes acted as turning points, changing how they viewed themselves
105
Recover capital?
refers to the internal and external resources necessary for an individual to achieve and maintain recovery from substance misuse as well as make behavioural changes.
106
Recovery capital - Social capital?
sum of resources that each person has as a result of their relationships. includes support and obligations from groups
107
Recovery capital - Physical capital
Tangible assets such as stable employment or housing. Access to a healthy diet and fulfilling hobbies
108
Recovery capital - Human capital
Skills, positive health, aspirations and hopes, personal resources that will enable an individual to prosper. educational attainment etc
109
Recovery capital - cultural capital
values, beliefs, attitudes that link to social integration
110
Jane Elliott (1968)
split class on eye colour - soon blue eyeds began to discriminate, though it was resisted at first and required the teacher to state that levels of melanin and intelligence are linked
111
What were the effects of discrimination in Jane Elliott's 1968 eye colour experiment?
affected ability in simple tests (blue did better)
| Affected behaviour, dominant brown eyed children began to act submissive and isolated
112
Goodson and Sikes?
Argued elliott's experiment was psychologically and emotionally damaging. Furthermore no real conclusion over whether harm outweighs benefit and vice versa (Byrnes and Kiger, 1992)
113
Impact of Piaget on education?
Stage theory impacting curriculum development, active learning and problem based learning.
114
Scaffolding/ assisted learning?
giving infomration, prompts, reminders encouragements etc. Adapting problems to child's level.
dialogue and discussion are important. role of inner speech and metacognition. Importance of autonomy.
115
Bredderman (1983)?
compared 57 traditional based and activity based science teaching approaches. Activity based better for depth of understanding and creativity, but same in terms of knowledge.
116
Toth, Klahr & Chen (2000)
4th grade science students taught using 3 methods. Small group discussion, teacher led discussion, active experimentation. Combination of inquiry, discussion, explanation and modelling promoted learning
117
What is a Neuromyth? (MacDonald et al, 2017)
misconception generated by misunderstanding, misreading etc using brain research in other contextxs
118
Learning styles myth (Jarrett, 2017)
Endorsed by:
| 93% public, 76% of teachers, 78% of those with Nsci education
119
Left brain, right brain myth (Jarrett, 2017)
endorsed by:
| 64% public, 46% of teachers, 32% of those with Nsci education
120
School based research (Dev psych)?
school related issues, like bullying, additional support, as well as wider issues, e.g. eating disorders, gender differences etc
121
Hospital/ clinical based research? (Dev psych)
Social and emotional development of cancer patients, adolescent suicide etc
122
Community based research (Dev psych)
Homeless adolescents, CIC etc
123
Lab based research (Dev psych)
Strange situation, MRI etc
124
Internet based research (Dev psych)
Blogs, forums, surveys etc
125
Dev Psych myths of childhood?
human personality mainly formed in early childhood, and effective psychotherapy depends on how thoroughly one's childhood is dealt with
126
Problems with personality in early childhood theory?
much research done on animals, e.g.Lorenz (1935)
127
Rutter (1998)?
Romanian orphan study, showed that trauma in early childhood didn't have to have lasting effects.
128
Myth: psychotherapy depends on reconstruction of childhood experience
human memory = unreliable
in psychoanalysis - its actually the emotional support of therapist that is key
digging up past can be problematic - used to induct into cults
129
adversity?
A little can be good, but a lot can be physically + psychologically disruptive. Environment influences levels of adversity, e.g. socioeconomic status
130
Individual differences - adversity
affects magnitude of impact adversity has on individuals - diathesis stress model.
131
Resilience as a personal trait?
first conceptualised as such, but later reframed to reflect a dynamic process, including contributions of systems, e.g. family and wider community
132
Sources of resilience?
personal factors, biological and environmental factors, and interactions between these
133
Personality factors - resilience
personality traits, locus of control, self efficacy, self-esteem. many more including intellectual functioning, positive self-concepts, demograohics and social relationships.
134
Biological factors in resilience?
variables include brain size, make up of neural networks, sensitivity of receptors, ability to synthesis and reuptake neurotransmitters1
135
Lick your rat!
maternal care in rats leads to a reduced HPA response to rats.
136
Lick your rat! epigenetics!
GR gene silenced by methyl groups after birth, but nurturing by the mother will actually demethylate the GR gene, which leads to less anxious rats
137
Morning cortisol and abused children? (Bruce et al, 2009)
sig more likely to have low morning cortisol levels. Impact on HPA system
138
protective genetic influences and resilience?
one variant of the gene is associated with high levels of MAOA (MAOA-H) and another variant is associated with low levels (MAOA-L). Several studies have now found a correlation between the low-activity form of the MAOA gene and aggression
139
does vulnerability to PTSD increase with age?
we see it more in adults, or we don't know how it presents in children. the vulnerability could be parabolic, or it could be that resilience is higher in older adults due to traumatic events, bereavements etc.
140
Seligman PERMA model
```
P- positive emotion
E- Engagement
R- Relationships
M - Meaning
A- Accomplishments
```
141
Allostasis?
Body's response to stress, alters things like ANS, SNS, HPA axis - stability through change
142
Allostatic load?
Long term effect of allostasis - resilience is how well individuals can adapt
143
Children of survivors
lower levels of cortisol, higher levels of enzyme that breaks it down, possibly inutero adaptation to protect foetus from higher circulating cortisol levels
144
Zerach and Solomon (2016)
lower ptsd/ anxiety in third generation
145
assessment for atypical development?
variety of forms, multiprofessional
146
Issues with assessment for atypical development?
diagnostic criteria often overlap. Not useful without understanding of context and labels have stigma
147
Play based assessment/?
gain an understanding of developmental levels
gain information about cultural and social context
formal and informal play based assessments often form parts of a child's developmental profiles
148
criticisms of play based assessments?
personality, attachment style, attention span and anxiety factors can confound play assessment. also impacts of culture
149
Bayley scales of infant development?
core battery of five scales, designed to measure physical, motor, sensory and cognitive development. typically used on 1-3 year olds combination of interactive play based tasks and parent questionnaires
150
Developmental history assessment ?
- asks parents to describe their child's behaviours etc from pregnancy to current age . used in predictive manners / to provide a prognosis. Limitations - retrospective data and recollection.
151
Save the children (2017)
84% of adults and almost all children said the number 1 cause of psychological distress in daily lives was bombing and shelling
80% said children had become more agressive, 89% said more fearful
51% adolescents lost a loved one and turning to drugs to cope
152
What are save the children calling for?
expansion of mental health and psychosocial support for children in syria. raise awareness within these communities , work to reduce stigma -help them realise this is a normal response to bombing
153
German and Entholdt (2017)
guidelines for LA response for refugee children, e.g. appropriate psychological support, work collaboratively with schools, address specific needs
