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Indian agriculture Flashcards

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1
Q

Area, Production and yield of(2016-17): rice

A

43.2Mha

110MT

2550kg/ha

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2
Q

Area, Production and yield of(2016-17): wheat?

A

30.5MHa 98MT 3216kg/ha

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3
Q

Area, Production and yield of(2016-17): coarse cereals?

A

24.7MHa 44MT 1780kg/ha

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4
Q

Area, Production and yield of(2016-17): pulses?

A

29.4MHa 23MT 780kg/Ha

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5
Q

Area, Production and yield of(2016-17): foodgrains?

A

128MHa 275MT 2153kg/Ha

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6
Q

Area, Production and yield of(2016-17): oilseeds?

A

26.2MHa 32MT 1225kg/Ha

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7
Q

Area, Production and yield of(2016-17): Sugarcane?

A

4.3MHa 306MT 70000kg/ha

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8
Q

Production in 1950-51 vs 2016-17 for: rice?

A

21MT 110MT

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9
Q

Production in 1950-51 vs 2016-17 for:wheat?

A

6MT 98MT

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10
Q

Production in 1950-51 vs 2016-17 for: Pulses?

A

8MT 23MT

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11
Q

Production in 1950-51 vs 2016-17 for:oilseed?

A

5MT 32MT

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12
Q

Production in 1950-51 vs 2016-17 for: foodgrains?

A

51MT 275MT

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13
Q

Avg yield for India as whole and for the highest yield states for (2014-15): wheat?

A

2872kg/ha 4491kg/ha (PJ)

remember: 3216kg/ha for INdia (2016-17) and for PJ: 4500kg/ha

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14
Q

Avg yield for India as whole and for the highest yield states for (2014-15): rice? comparison with yield of other countries?

A

2390kg/ha 3000kg/Ha (AndhraP) India 2nd highest producer of paddy in world bt its yield is lower than China(6500kg/ha), brazil and USA

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15
Q

Avg yield for India as whole and for the highest yield states for (2014-15): pulses?

A

744kg/Ha 877kg/ha(MP)

remember: 780kg/ha and 880kg/ha

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16
Q

Avg yield for India as whole and for the highest yield states for (2014-15): oilseed?

A

1037kg/Ha 1500kg/Ha (GJ)

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17
Q

Avg yield for India as whole and for the highest yield states for (2014-15): Sugarcane?

A

69860kg/Ha 93000kg/Ha (KN)

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18
Q

Variation in yield of food grains? for India as whole?

A

Raj (1535kg/Ha) Odisha (1700kg/Ha) UK (1800kg/Ha) Haryana (3800kg/Ha) PJ (4100kg/Ha) 2070kg/Ha in 2014-15

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19
Q

wheat and rice account for ______% of foodgrains?

A

78%

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20
Q

Yield increase for foddgrains since 1950-51?

A

increased by more than 4X to 2070kg/Ha in 2014-15

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21
Q

Slow rate of growth of productivity(yield) for rice in India?

A

For Brazil, rate of growth of yield of rice was lower than India’s in 1981 (1.3% vs India’s 2%) but surpassed latter in 2011(4.9% vs 3.6%)

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22
Q

Need to increase share of high value crops in Gross Cropped area in India?

A

o Staple crops (cereals, pulses and oilseeds) occupy 77% of the total gross cropped area but contribute only 41% to total output of the crop sector. o High value crop occupy only 19% of GCA and contribute an almost similar amount to total output as staple

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23
Q

Agri Trade: main items of imports?

A

pulses, edible oil, fresh fruits, cashewnuts etc

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24
Q

agri trade: main items of export?

A

rice, spices, cotton, meat, Sugar etc

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25
Q

Share of agri import in total import? growth?

A

4.2% in 2014-15 2.8% in 1990-91

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26
Q

Share of agri export in total import? growth?

A

12.7% in 2014-15 18.5% in 1990-91

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27
Q

Total worth of agri export? of Agri import?

A

30.1Bn$ (2015-16) 15.9Bn$ in 2015-16

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28
Q

Land holding (no. of): size wise distribution? change since 1970?

A

Marginal: 36mn(1970-71) –> 93mn(2010-11)

Small: 13mn–> 25mn

Medium: 19Mn –> 20Mn

Large: 3Mn –> 1Mn

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29
Q

Increase in no. of operational land holdings?

A

The total number of operational holdings in the country has increased from 138 million in 2010-11 to 146 million in 2015-16, i.e an increase of 5.33 per cent

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30
Q

size wise distri of land holdings (in %) (2015-16)?

A

68.5% marginal 17.7% small 4.3% large

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31
Q

Operational Land holdings operated by Women: overall and size wise?

A

All size grp: 13.9% Marginal: 14.6% Small: 13.3% Medium: 9.6% Large: 7.7%

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32
Q

Land Leasing: variability of laws in different states?

A

-> Prohibited in Kerala, J&K, Manipur -> allowed for certain category of land owner in Bihar, KN, UP and Odisha -> No explicit prohibition in GJ, MH and Assam -> allowed in andhraP, TN, WB (bargadars system)

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33
Q

% of land given for agricultural lease? some state wise values?

A

Overall, only 10% 34% in AndhraP; 25% in PJ; 21% in Bihar and 18% in sikkim

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34
Q

relation betn size of land holding and access to formal source of credit?

A

-> For size of Land holding: 0-1ha, 10% credit is frm cooperative societies, 27% frm banks while 41% frm Money-lenders -> For size of Land holding: >10ha, 14% credit is frm cooperative societies, 64% frm banks while 16% frm Money-lenders

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35
Q

Corporate investment in agri?

A

has nt exceeded 2%

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36
Q

Insurance coverage for Indian farmers?

A

2011: 10% 2018: 35%

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37
Q

Irrigation in India?

A

-> Consumes 84% of total available water in the country -> According to Asian Water Development Outlook, 2016: almost 89% of ground water extracted is for irrigation. -> India uses 2-3 times as much water to produce one tonnes of grain as other countries like China, Brazil and USA

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38
Q

Irrigation sources?

A

tube well: 44%; well: 20%; Canals: 26%; tanks: 6% -> 65% irrigated by ground water

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39
Q

water stressed area?

A

~53% cropped area is water stressed

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40
Q

Main water consuming crops?

A

The water guzzler, paddy and sugarcane consume more than 60% of irrigation water available in the country

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41
Q

Growth in area under micro-irrigation? PMKSY provision for micro-irrigation? need for micro-irrigation?

A

As per DFI report, area covered under micro-irrigation at the end of 2016-17, stood at 9.5Mha, ~3X increase in last 5 yrs. Under the more crop per drop component of the PMKSY, small farmers get paid to the tune of 55% of cost of micro-irrigation systems; other farmers get 45% of the unit cost. As per DFI Report, 2018, micro irrigation delivers water savings upto 40 per cent over conventional flood irrigation, crop and income enhancement to the extent of approximately 47 per cent and 48 per cent respectively.

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42
Q

India’s current irrigation coverage?

A

India’s current irrigation coverage is 48.7% of total sown area. Out of a total 140.13 million hectares of sown area, India’s net irrigated area is 68.38 million hectares while 71.74 million hectares are un-irrigated

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43
Q

Soil erosion loss?

A

About 5.3 bn tonnes of soil is eroded annually at a rate of about 16.4 tonnes/hectare

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44
Q

Fertiliser usage in India?

A
  1. recommended NPK iin India is 4:2:1, against india’s current 6.7:2.4:1 2) avg consumption increase frm 106kg/ha in 2005-06 to 128kg/Ha in 2012-13. Compared to 396kg/Ha in china 3) Fertilizer consumption was less than 1 million tonnes before the mid-1960s. With the introduction of high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds, there was acceleration in the growth of fertilizer consumption. It reached 18MT in 1999-2000.
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45
Q

Increase in Fertiliser subsidy ?

A

Increasing at an annual rate of 11.4% betn 2000-2016

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46
Q

Declining fertiliser response ratio?

A

13.4(1970)–>8.2(1980)–> 5.8(1990)–> 4.1 (2000) The declining fertilizer response ratio is an indicator of declining responsiveness of soil fertility to fertiliser application.According to Department of Fertilisers, the declining fertilizer response ratio in Indian agriculture is due to inadequacy and imbalance in fertiliser use, increasing multi-nutrient deficiency, lack of farmers awareness about balanced plant nutrition and poor crop management.

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47
Q

Pesticide consumption in India?

A

-> 57350 T in 2014-15 frm ~2000T in 1955-56 -> intensity of pesticide consumption in the country is one of the lowest in the world (291.2 grams/ha), compared to US (4.5kg/ha), Japan (11kg/ha) and China (14kg/ha) and the world average of 3 kg per ha (2012-13) -> Pesticide use in india is in ~9% of net cropped area.

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48
Q

Mechanisation in Indian agriculture?

A

-> Overall mechanisation is less then 50% compared to over 90% in developed countries -> Harvesting and threshing activities (60-70%) -> Irrigation (37%) -> Lowest in seeding and planting

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49
Q

wastage %?

A

• Fruits and vegetables (4.6-15.9)% • Pulses (6.4-8.4)% • Oilseed (5-10)%

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50
Q

Gaps in storage facility and capacity?

A

Pack houses: req(2015): 70000

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51
Q

Efficacy of MSP in pricing?

A

-> According to Niti Aayog findings, only about 10% of farmers are aware of MSPs before showing season. and 62% of farmers informed of MSPs after theirs sowing.

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52
Q

Doubling of farmers’ income?

A
  1. Doubled in 22 yrs i.e. betn 1993-34 and 2015-16 @ GR of 3.31% 2. For doubling it by 2022, required rate of annual growth in farmer’s income is 10.4%
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53
Q

Expenditure in agri r&D?

A

marginal increase frm 0.3% of Agri GVA in 2012-13 to 0.37 % of Agri GVA in 2018-19

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54
Q

Stats for Animal Husbandry ?

A

acc to 19th Livestock census, 1. 300 mn Bovines 2. 65Mn Sheeps (6.4% of world) 3. 135 Mn Goats (16% of world) 4. 10.3 Mn pigs 5. Sheeps and goats:39% of country’s total livestock population

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55
Q

Livestock rearing principle source of income for?

A

acc to 70th round of NSSO, livestock rearing is principal source of income to about 3.7% of agricultural labour

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56
Q

Milk Production in India?

A
  1. 20% of world’s production 2. 55.6 MT(1991-92)—> 176MT (2017-18) 3. Avg annual GR of 4.5%
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57
Q

per capita availability of milk?Interstate variation?

A

375g/day 71g/day in assam to 1120g/day in PJ

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58
Q

Schemes in milk sector?

A

• Rashtriya Gokul Mission • E Pashu Haat Portal • National Livestock Mission • Livestock Health & Disease control Scheme • Dairy development

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59
Q

Fisheries sector in India?

A
  1. employs >14.5mn 2. 2nd largest fish producer in world with total production of 13.7MT in 2018-19; 65% frm inland sector 3. Accounts for 5.23% of agri GDP
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60
Q

Potential and Challenges in Pulse Production in INdia: Intro?

A

As per FAO

  1. largest producer: 25% of world’s
  2. largest consumer: 27% of world’s
  3. largest importer: 14% of world’s

Total prodn of pulses: 8.41MT in 1950-51 to 24 MT in 2018 while for rice, 20.58MT in 1950-51 to 112MT in 2018

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61
Q

Potential and Challenges in Pulse Production in INdia: potential?

A
  1. grow on wide range of soil and climate conditions; India has 15 agro-Climatic zones
  2. Most pulse crops are of short duration: multiple cropsin a yr
  3. Major pulses like Gram and Tur: only 2.8% and 2% of total cropped area respectively. Huge domestic demand-> potetial to increase cropped area
  4. largely resilient to CC; Nitrogen fixation; some are able to free soil-bound phosphorous; reduces need for synthetic fertilisers and pesticides-> Organic Farming
  5. Low C emission and water needs–> ideally suited for India’s farming system (water need fro 1kg of meat=4-5X )
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62
Q

Potential and Challenges in Pulse Production in INdia: Challenges?

A
  1. Agro climatic condition: chiefly grownin rain-fed areas; agro-climate conditions of those regions are comparatively less suited for pulses cultivation
  2. being rain fed, experience drought at critical growth stages. only 1/6th of total cultivated land under pulses has irrigation facilities
  3. Lack of Drought and disease resistant varieties; also lack of HYVs- Farmers use their own seeds and use no Phosphate ferilisers
  4. Soils growing pulses hv high salinity and alkalinity in semi-arid tropics and Indo-Gangetic plains. CASE STUDY: Poor Drainage and water logging in UP, MP, Bihar and WB causes yield loss in pigeon pea in particular
  5. Though MSP announced,bt low procurement rate; rather grow rice and wheat as they hv high procurement rate due to PDS
  6. GR-> pushed pulses to marginal and sub-marginal lands-> declining productivity. Today, Area under cultivation of paddy in 43.2MHa while that under pulses is 30LHa
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63
Q

Potential and Challenges in Pulse Production in INdia: conclusion?

A
  1. demand: 39MT by 2050 (IIPR)
  2. Govt steps: hike in MSP, Integrated Scheme of Oilseeds, Pulses, maize and oilpalm (ISOPOM), PM-AASHA
  3. CEA led panel on pulses: procuremet on war footing, 2Mn buffer stock, removing pulses frm APMC, changing methodology of MSP calculation for pulses, deregulate pulses export etc.
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64
Q

Short Note on Economic Importance of Organic farming: intro?

A
  1. Organic farming is a production system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators, genetically modified organisms and livestock food additives.
  2. India is home to 30 per cent of the total organic producers in the world, but accounts for just 2.59 per cent (1.5 million hectares) of the total organic cultivation area of 57.8 million hectares, according to the World of Organic Agriculture 2018 report.
  3. MP has largest organic agri cover followed by Raj, MH and UP
  4. NMSA- has organic farming as one of its components
  5. Total area under Organic Farming has increased by almost 20% in last two years to -27.7LHa
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65
Q

Short Note on Economic Importance of Organic farming: Diagram/Sketch?

A

organic farming system rely upon crop rotations, use of crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, off farm organic wastes, biofertilizers, mechanical cultivation, mineral bearing rocks and aspects of biological control to maintain soil productivity and tilth

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66
Q

Short Note on Economic Importance of Organic farming: Economic benefits?

A
  1. Higher Profitability: Due ti high nutritive value, better taste and quality, demand is high; India produces ~1.35MT of certified organic products; prodn nt limited to edible sector bt also produces organic cotton fibre, functional food products etc.
  2. New studies indicate that using the best management practices in organic systems over a long period of time can produce equal yields, or even outdo those of conventional systems.
  3. It has been estimated that in the US, the adverse impact of conventional farming on the environment and health costs $5 billion to $16.9 billion a year. These costs are actually paid by the consumer in the form of medical bills and decreased quality of life due to pollution. Impact assessment of organic farming compared to conventional farming considering the sustainability framework can help to increase consumer awareness
  4. Potash fertilisers: India 100% import dependent’ for urea production, natural gas is imported. reduction of these imports will improve our BoP and CAD
  5. will curb excessive demand for urea , reducing Govt’s subsidy burden
  6. Improved Investment and employment generation: eg. in NE, niche crops like Assam lemons, bhut JHolakia, Joha rice, if developed organically will give high gains-> improving economy of the region and increasing employment opportunities reducing migration.
  7. Premium price in domestic and overseas mkts; region could be developed as a eco-tourism destination.
  8. CASE STUDY: Sikkim; 75000Ha of land under OF, supporting agri, tourism through concept of Organic Village.
  9. Mission for Organic value Chain development for NE region (MOVCDNER) and PKVY launched by GoI for NE, Network Project on Organic Farming under ICAR.; National Program for Organic Production (NPOP) of APEDA which includes Third-party certification
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67
Q

Short Note on Economic Importance of Organic farming: conclusion?

A

needed for Global Food security and Ecosystem sustainability; also can help in achieving SDGs and increase farmer’s income.

Many farmers are apprehensive about adopting organic farming due to the high production cost and the three-year transition period when farmers have to wait before getting their farms certified.

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68
Q

Regional challenges of Indian agriculture: Intro?

A
  1. In 2016, agriculture and allied sectors like animal husbandry, forestry and fisheries accounted for 15.4% of the GDP with about 31% of the workforce in 2014
  2. By using some elements of Griggs and whittleseys classification of Agri regions, we can broadly divide India’s agri into 5 regions
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69
Q

Regional challenges of Indian agri: Rice-Jute-Tea region?

A

corresponding to humid location combined with fertile lowland of alluvial soil

Challenges:

  1. 78% farmers are small and marginal: low mechanization
  2. submergence due to poor drainage;ep in eastern India ,water logging, flash flood. Sub-surface hard pans which reduces the soil permeability, and the root ability to extract nutrients from subsoils results from continuous soil puddling and drying.
  3. eastern regions: high rainfall and yearly floods
  4. non-availability of improved varieties of seeds; use of traditional varieties
  5. Microelement deficiency, especially zinc and sulphur, is mainly caused due to rice monoculture, is seriously affecting the productivity of soils. Zinc deficiency is the most widespread microelement disorder of wetland rice
  6. low and imbalanced use of fertilisers, particularly in NE and eastern states
  7. heavy infestation of insects and pests: introduction of semi-dwarf varieties and the large input use like fertilizers and insecticides have changed the scenario of pest occurrence from low to high incidence of several pests like brown plant hoppers, stem borers, leaf folders, etc., and diseases such as blast, bacterial blight, sheath rot
  8. mostly in rainfed lowlands, delay in monsoon results in delay and prolonged transplantation.
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70
Q

regional challenges of Indian agri: Horticulture region?

A

Entire Northern Mountainous region is a prominent horticulture zone;

MH, AndhraP, UP: Fruits

Bihar, UP, Bengal: vegetable

Challenges:

  1. market inefficiencies and limits of storage infra: little prrotection against glut; no safety net like MSP
  2. Faulty policies
  3. Lack of Producers’ cooperation and post harvest processing and value addition
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71
Q

regional challenges of Indian agri: Wheat and suarcane region?

A

NW plains, Sutlej-Yamuna plains, Rohilkhand in UP, Bihar, haryana, PJ

challenges

  1. Heat stress
  2. dwindling water supply for irrigation
  3. disease and pest problem eg. Ug99(Wheat rust)
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72
Q

regional challenges of Indian agri: cotton region?

A

Confined to black soil region of India.

Also grown are Jowar, Sugarcane, Pulse, oilseeds etc in this region

challenges:

  1. certified seed coverage only 35%
  2. Increasing i/p cost: GM companies sell expensive cotton seeds and fertilisers.These have been major causes for unmanageable debts on farmers leading to suicides.
  3. 26% of crop area is under shallow soil
  4. cotton picking is completely manual in India. Mechanised picking is better than hand-picking since the latter can lead to contamination. No appropriate defoliant is available in India.
  5. Eutrophication and depletion of surface water: More than 35% of the areas under cotton cultivation is rain-fed with poor irrigation facilities
  6. due to incessant use of pesticides and pests that are becoming increasingly resistant to chemical dosage.
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73
Q

regional challenges of Indian agri: nutri-cereal region?

A

entire red soil belt; cultivation of food grains in combination to pulses and oilseeds e, Chambal valley-maize cultivation; Arid areas of Raj-Bajra; Plateau imterior of KN and TN- Ragi

Challenges:

  1. Uncertain, ill-distributed amd limited annual rainfall
  2. frequent droughts
    • CASE STUDY of Marathwada: >900 dams in the region and in certain years, all go dry; depletion of GW to such extent that borewell dug upto even 300-500ft are not finding water.
  3. undulating soil surface
  4. very low crop yield
  5. poor health of cattle as well as farmers
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74
Q

regional challenges of Indian agri: conclusion?

A

need to embrace sustainable agri by applyig systems approach in Research and education. We need rational and economic farmer, as assumed by Van Thunen

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75
Q

Short note on ZBNF: intro?

A

ZBNF is a natural farming technique, based on agroecological principle, which reduces the cost of production down to zero due to utilisation of all the natural resources available in and around the crops.

Started by Mr. Subhash Palekar, in association with KN farmer’s association

The crop is grown naturally, with minimal or no use of fertilisers, pesticides and other elements. It employs inter-cropping with leguminous crops and use of earthworms, cow dung, urine, plants, human excreta and other biological
fertilizers for crop protection.

Largely practiced indry regions.

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76
Q

Short note on ZBNF: Sketch/info box?

A

Factors leading to ZBNF:

  1. neo-liberalisation in Indian economy led to agrarian crisis
  2. expensive privatised seeds, i/p and inaccessible mkts
  3. farmers getting trapped in debt cycle
  4. impact of chemicals on the environment and on long-term fertility was devastating

Acc to NSSO, ~70% of agri HH spend more than they earn and more than half of all farmers are in debt.

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77
Q

Short note on ZBNF: Four wheels of ZBNF?

A
  1. Jiwamrit: ensure soil fertility through cow dung, cow-urine based concoctions
  2. Bijamrit: seed treatment with cow dung and water-urine based formulations; concoctions using neem leaves and pulp, tobacco and green chillis are prepared for insect and pest management.
  3. Waaphasa: water vapour condensation for better soil moisture
  4. Mulching and soil aeration for favourable soil conditions
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78
Q

Short Note on ZBNF: difference vs organic farming.

A
  1. ZBNF discourages intensive irrigation and deep ploughing
  2. ZBNF is against vermicomposting, which is the mainstay of typical organic farming, as it introduces the the most common composting worm, the European red wiggler (Eisenia fetida) to Indian soils. Mr. Palekar claims these worms absorb toxic metals and poison groundwater and soil.
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79
Q

Short Note on ZBNF: Govt incentives?

A

Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman FY19 Budget speech stressed on ‘need to replicate’ this model to attain DFI target.

In the revised guidelines of PKVY scheme during the year 2018, various organic farming models like Natural Farming, Rishi Farming, Vedic Farming, Cow Farming, Homa Farming, Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) etc. have been included wherein flexibility is given to states to adopt any model of Organic Farming including ZBNF depending on farmer’s choice.

Under the RKVY scheme, organic farming/ natural farming project components are considered by the respective State Level Sanctioning Committee (SLSC) according to their priority/ choice.

According to the Economic Survey, more than 1.6 lakh farmers are practising the ZBNF in almost 1,000 villages using some form of state support

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80
Q

Short note on ZBNF: case study?

A

A limited 2017 study in Andhra Pradesh claimed a sharp decline in input costs and improvement in yields (12% increase in yield of Paddy, 23% in that of groundnut), esp in Rayalseema region

Also, In June 2018, Andhra Pradesh rolled out an ambitious plan to become India’s first State to practise 100% natural farming by 2024. It aims to phase out chemical farming over 80 lakh hectares of land, converting the State’s 60 lakh farmers to ZBNF methods.

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81
Q

Short note on ZBNF: benefits?

A
  1. Reduced i/p cost; some studies have also pointed to higher yields
  2. Resilient food systems
  3. a possible solution to water stress challenges, drought conditions, floods
  4. decent livelihood to small farmers; DFI
  5. Promotion of good agro-economic practices
  6. Mixed cropping helps recover cost of production and also helps revive soil fertility and nutrients
  7. improves cropintensity and land-use intensity, will further help in preventing seasonal migration
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82
Q

Potential of agro-Tourism in rural development of India: intro?

A

As per Agro-Tourism Devlopment Corp 2004 survey, 97% of Urban pop wants to explore the beauty of rural life. Agri-tourism-golden opportunity to capitalise on this urban demand.

Agritourism is similar to eco-tourism except that its primary appeal is not the natural landscape but a cultural landscape.

Agritourism is a novel concept in the Indian tourism sector, which provides vast opportunities for tourists to experience the authentic ethnic culture of rural societies and actively engage in agricultural activities. Agriculture and its allied activities, which can be harnessed to promote agritourism may include organic farming, floriculture, sericulture, pisciculture, apiculture, medicinal plantation, pottery, so on and so forth.

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83
Q

Potential of agro-Tourism in rural development of India: map?

A
  1. saffron tourism-Karewas
  2. Mango (Dussehri) tourism- Malihabad, UP
  3. Wine tourism- Nashik
  4. Alphonso tourism- Ratnagiri
  5. Spice tourism- Kumily, Idukki
  6. Horticulture tourism of NE-Tea gardens of assam, ornamental crops of Mizoram

Agro-Tourism will develop rural areas y ensuring

  • vertical and horizontal integration
  • comprehensive development
  • community devlopment by local community participation
  • financial viability
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84
Q

potential of agro-Tourism in Rural dev: economic potential

A
  1. employment opportunities for rural youth
  2. income augmentation and diversification
  3. Public and pvt sector investment in rural infra
  4. direct marketing of farm produce
  5. hedge against climate vagaries and price fluctuations

Case study: Agro Tourism in Palshiwadi, Pune:

In 2007, Agro-Tourism dev corp and MH Tourism deptt trained 52 farmers for agro-tourism activities. successful model replicated in 328 agro-Tourist centres in MH, generating 36mn Rs. for state’s agri community.

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85
Q

potential of agro-Tourism in Rural dev: social potential?

A
  1. Prevent Distressed Migration
  2. interaction with outsiders-strengthen scientific temper through Cultural diffusion
  3. will enhance Social capital by bridging Rural-Urban divide
  4. Global recognition and thus preservation of regional heritage, natural resources and culinary expression of specific agri regions
  5. women empowerment

CASE STUDY: Agro Tourism for regional integration of J&K

Under developed regions, which otherwise do not attend much tourists (Pampore, Kishtwar for saffron; baramulla, sopore for apple) can be promoted as agro-tourism centres

86
Q

potential of agro-Tourism in Rural dev: conclusion?

A
  • sun-rise sector
  • DFI as well as eliminating poverty and hunger (SDG1 & 2)
  • reduce regional inequalities
  • utilise schemes like NRLM, PMGKY to train rural youth in tourist related skills
  • needs to be sustainable so as not to disturb the local ecosystem.
87
Q

Development of Dryland agriculture in India. Discuss DADP and agro-Clmate planning in context of dryland agri development: intro?

A

Dryland Farming- special case of rainfed farming practised in arid & semi-arid regions, where annual precipitation is <75cm.

DLA-68% of INdia’s cultivated area and support 40% human and 60% livestock pop

88
Q

Development of Dryland agriculture in India. Discuss DADP and agro-Clmate planning in context of dryland agri development: map? features?

A

Features of DLA:

  1. moisture conservation by ploughig the field repititively
  2. sowing crops every alternate yr
  3. pulverisation of soil
  4. Mulching to prevent evaporation of soil moisture
89
Q

Development of Dryland agriculture in India. Discuss DADP and agro-Clmate planning in context of dryland agri development: development of dryland agri in India?

A
  • started with an all India coordinated research project for dryland agri launched by ICAR in 1970 and later with estab of central research institute for dryland agri (CRIDA), hyderabad
  • Practices adopted for dev of DLA in india
    1. Crop planning and Diversification: crops chosesn were of short duration and heat tolerant; high yielding; diversification by growing wheat and maize, pulses and cotton
    2. Feriliser use: avail of nutrients in dryland limited, so fertiliser applied in furrows below the seed
    3. rainwater management: application of compost and farmyard manure and raising legumes; increases organic matter content, increasing its water holding capacity
    4. watershed management approach: to optimize use of land, water and vegetation in an area
90
Q

Development of Dryland agriculture in India. Discuss DADP and agro-Clmate planning in context of dryland agri development: DADP?

A

Drought Area Dev Planning: earliest area dev prog, launched in 1973-74 to tackle DA severely affected by driughts, characterized by large human and cattle population

Obj: minimise adverse effects of drought on crops, livestock, productivity of land, water and human resources; ultimately leading to drought profiling of affected areas/ aims to promote overall economic dev & improve socio-econ conditions of poor.

Dryland area Dev tech :

  • reducing evaporation loss: mulches-> leading to soil conservation, reduction of soil salinity
  • reducing transpiation loss: anti-transpirants
  • wind breaks and shelterbelts
  • weed control

CASE STUDY: success story of Hiware Bazar (MH) in dryland agri

Once a very water stressed region, conditions hv improved thanks to dryland agri. best practices include-

  • ban on deep borewells
  • shallow handpumps even for potable water
  • water budgeting
  • involvement of Gram sabha to advice farmers
91
Q

Development of Dryland agriculture in India. Discuss DADP and agro-Clmate planning in context of dryland agri development: Agro-climate planning?

A

focusses on growing the crops in a region acc to climatic conditions. This assumes significance in dryland region, characterised by- inadequate, uneven rainfall, low fertility of soil, low moisture retention capacity

92
Q

Development of Dryland agriculture in India. Discuss DADP and agro-Clmate planning in context of dryland agri development: conclusion?

A

Govt initiatives to make dryland farming more productive like NMSA to address problems in dryland areas coz of climate change, PMKSY, Agri contingency plan by CRIDA, ICAR

93
Q

Method of delineating Crop association regions with reference of India: intro?

A

an important aspect of agri geography; In a predominantly agri country like INdia, crops are grown in selected combinations,except a few small pockets of plantation agri;These crop assemblages are fairly stable because ecological, socio-economic and other conditions suitale for such combination in any particular region of the country hv remained stable for a long time. Study of crop combinations has greater significance in Indian agri because it presents a true picture of crop distri and provides a solid base for agri regionalisation of the country.

94
Q

Method of delineating Crop association regions with reference of India: First ranking crop region?

A

based on dominant crops grown. OTBO this method, india can be divided into

  1. Rice region: frm lower Gangetic plain to BM valley.
    • combinations: R-J-T; R-Pulse-Millet; R-Millet
  2. Wheat region: covering the entire NW India;
    • W-maize-Cane; W-Jowar-bajra
  3. Jowar-bajra region: in regions of low rainfall (50-100cm);
    • Jowar-cotton (MH), Jowar-Wheat (RJ,HR), Bajra-Jowar-Pulses
  4. Cotton region: in black soil region covering deccan trap with combinations
    • Cotton-jowar-bajra (MH, west UP), Cotton-oilseed (GJ)
  5. Millet-Maize region: found in close addociation with other major cereals like bajra, wheat.
    • Maize-barley-wheat combination has developed in foothills of Himalayas

Flawed as it ignores other minor crops and doesn’t truly depict the agri diversity

95
Q

Method of delineating Crop association regions with reference of India: Crop Combination technique of Weaver?

A

first time, used the statistical technique on the basis of crops and their combinations

STEP1: Percentage area under each crop is calculated, ignoring crops with cropped area less than 1% of the total

STEP 2: This area is compared with a standard norm of ideal crop area and Standard Deviation is calculated

STEP 3: Combination having least Standard deviation is identified as crop combination.

Eg. of Gorakhpur district, where area under : rice-48%; wheat-23%; Barley-15%; Sugarcane-6%; Pulses-5%

96
Q

Method of delineating Crop association regions with reference of India:Other ?

A

Peter scott modified Weaver’s scheme to includeanimals as important combination of a farm.

Coppock suggested converting animals of a farm acc to calorie o/p so as to compare animals with crops. Coppock’s technique along with modification by Doi found more suitable for INdia

97
Q

Method of delineating Crop association regions with reference of India: factors which influence crop combination (BOX)?

A
  • nature of topography
  • soil
  • rainfall
  • seasonal contrast
  • human preferences and irrigation
  • infrastructure
98
Q

Method of delineating Crop association regions with reference of India: conclusion?

A

facilitates examination of crop diversification, crop rotation and crop specialisation; info aby crop combination essential for planning the future orientation of agri. Need to expand scope of crom combination studies to include other activities like horticulture, animal husbandry, aquaculture, social forestry to account for sustainable agri development.

99
Q

Global Warming as a serious threat to food security: intro?

A
  • IPCC: crop yield could declineby 10-25% due to CC by 2050; around 570Mn farmers are facing threat of CC at present
  • UN’s report on CC and land: food prices will rise by 80% by 2050; food shortage will affect pre-dominantly the poorer part of the world
  • disrupting food availability, hindering food access and affecting food quality: Threatening food security globally
100
Q

Global Warming as a serious threat to food security: diagram?

A
101
Q

Global Warming as a serious threat to food security: Africa?

A

Acc to IPCC AR5, sub-saharan african countries agri productivity will reduce frm 21% to 9% by 2080;some estimates suggest, >2/3rd of africa’s arable land is expected to be lost by 2025 because of lack of rainfall and drought

Factors in BOX: drought, decreasing yield; pest outbreaks

Case study: In Tanzania, by 2050, the projected increase of 2 °C will reduce the average production of maize, sorghum and rice by 13%, 8.8% and 7.6%, respectively. South Africa is nationally food secure; however, between 58% and 73% of households experience food insecurity along with water crisis of Cape town

102
Q

Global Warming as a serious threat to food security: asia?

A
  • Food production:
    • IPCC AR4 report: in East and SE Asia, crop yield could increase upto 20% by 250 bt in central and South Asia, yield might decrease by upto 30% .
    • Over 60% of all agriculture in Asia is rain-fed and therefore remains highly sensitive to changes in rainfall patterns
    • Shifting crop suitability: while CC may favour cassava production in northern parts of SE Asia, it is mainly an industrial crop. While, bean, an imp source of veg protein in the region, will lose out.
    • CASE STUDY:Crop and climate models based on historical data suggest that, for every degree Celsius increase in temperature, between 4 and 5 million tonnes of wheat are lost in South Asia
  • Food access:
    • affects livelihoods
    • food inflation
    • extreme events
    • CASE STUDY: 2002 drought in India was linked to a reduction of more than 15 percent in rice production, shooting up rice price.
  • Food utilization:
    • diet diversity impacted:
    • There is evidence that in a warmer climate, higher carbon dioxide concentrations are linked to decreased protein and mineral nutrient concentrations, as well as altered lipid composition
    • CASE STUDY: For rice, wheat, and barley, grain protein is projected to decrease by 10% to 15% under elevated carbon dioxide concentrations
    • Gender impact: Historically, food price increases in Asia have been associated with an increase in 10-20 per cent in maternal anemia
103
Q

Global Warming as a serious threat to food security: Europe (BOX)

A

AR4 report of IPCC says, S.Europe’s crop productivity will decrease while may increase in N. Europe. forest productivity in central and S. Europe expected to decrease.

104
Q

Global Warming as a serious threat to food security: India?

A
  • Acc to Indian Agri Research Insti, yield of wheat may decrease by 6-23% by 2050; yield of rice in irrigated areas may decrease by 7% in 2050 and 10% in 2080; sorghum and potato in West Bengal and sorghum, potato and maize in southern plateau are likely to see reduced productivity; productivity of apple in Himachal Pradesh (MAP)
  • Research at the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal has found that heat stress has a negative impact on the reproduction traits of cows and buffaloes and their fertility will be adversely impacted.
  • Climate change will impact ocean current, acidification, temperature and food availability. All of this will affect the production of fish.
105
Q

GW as a serious threat to food security: adaptation and mitigation?

A
  • alternative farming techniques like Organic farming, ZBNF
  • climate smart agri: GM crops(climate resilient), crop diversification, micro irrigation
  • Case study: Floating Gardens of BN has allowed farmers to convert prolonged flooding season into opportunity. floating plots made from local organic material on which diversified vegetables are grown or seedlings are raised for marketing.
106
Q

GW as a serious threat to food security: conclusion?

A
  • SDG13 and SDG2
107
Q

Climate smart agri practices, would be key to eradicate hunger from the world: intro?

A
  • State of food security and nutrition 2018 report: no. of hungry people in 0217=820mn or 1 in 9 people.
  • SDG2: Eliminate global hunger
  • The 2019 spotlight essay in the Global Hunger Report shows that climate change’s impact on global food production will exacerbate global hunger. For eg. The FAO says that in semi-arid regions of the world, 80% or more of year-to-year variation in cereal production can be attributed to climate variability.
108
Q

Climate smart agri practices, would be key to eradicate hunger from the world: diagram?

A
109
Q

Climate smart agri practices, would be key to eradicate hunger from the world: Challenges to food security due to Climate change

A

USE FACTS FRM ‘Global warming as a serious threat to food security…’ answer.

110
Q

Climate smart agri practices, would be key to eradicate hunger from the world: Climate smart agriculture to eradicate hunger.

A
  • Defn: FAO: Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an approach for transforming and reorienting agricultural production systems and food value chains so that they support sustainable development and can ensure food security under climate change
  • objectives:
    • sustainably increases productivity
    • enhance resilience,
    • reduce GHGs where possible and
    • enhances achievement of national food security and development goals.
  • Three pillars: as per local conditions; achieve high crop yields or overall productivity ; and reduce wastage of resources
  • BOX: Elements of Climate smart Agri:
    1. management of lands, crops, livestock, aquaculture etc to balance near term food security and livelihood needs
    2. improving resilience and adaptiveness of crop production by initiatives like diversification, Tolerant hybrid seeds, organic farming
    3. ecosystem and landscape management to conserve ecosystem services that are important for food security
    4. better manage the risks and impacts of climate change and undertake mitigation actions
    5. demand-side measures and value chain interventions that enhance the benefits of climate-smart agriculture
111
Q

Climate smart agri practices, would be key to eradicate hunger from the world: best practices (BOX)?

A
  • catfish aquaculture of Vietnam led to decrease in water consumption and improved yields
  • Drought tolerant maize for africa
  • Kenya: carbon credits given to farmers for land mgmt
  • East Africa dairy development improved productivity as well as decreased reduced emission per unit of milk
112
Q

Climate smart agri practices, would be key to eradicate hunger from the world: Caution (since question asked critically analyse)? Otherwise conclusion?

A

We need to transit to a more sustainable food system and mitigate climate change globally while at the same time adapt to climate change. The world has to come together because though it will be the developing countries who will be facing the brunt of CC on their agri systems bt, they alone cannot halt the ever-threatening danger of CC.

113
Q

Conservation agri and its significance in Agri dev in India: intro?

A

Defn: CA is a farming system that promotes maintenance of permanent soil cover, minimum soil disturbance (no tillage) and diversification of plant species.

It is being increasingly promoted by FAO across S Africa, Sudan, Egypt, N America etc.

CA facilitates good AGRONOMY complemented by other known good practices for sustainable agricultural production intensification.

114
Q

Conservation agri and its significance in agri dev in India: diagram?

A
115
Q

Conservation agri and its significance in agri dev in India: significance?

A
  1. Improving soil fertility and combating Land degradation:
    • Global Soil BioDiversity Atlas of WWF, India faces grave danger to soil biodiversity
    • CA will help India enhance biodiversity and natural soli-processes due to its principle of no tillage and mulching and thus reduce soil erosion, improve soil moisture and soil nutrients.
    • Will prevent loss of arable land while regenerating degraded land
  2. Ecologically viable and env friendly
    • will help manage agro-waste by utilising it as an i/p for soil mulching
    • obviate crop burning and stubble burning
    • promotes carbon sequestration
  3. balance betn ecological desirability and economic viability
    • means to DFI, by reducing i/p cost; less labor intensive; less mechanization but higher yields: Ideal for small and marginal farmers
    • ecologically, promotes agri acc to local conditions and agri climatic regionalization
    • CASE STUDY: CA practiced in rice -wheat region of INdia led to adoption of Zero Tillage, which reduced cost of wheat prodn by 2000-3000/ha
  4. Promoting Climate resilient agri
    • will make INdia’s agri Climate resilient by focussing on Crop Diversification, promoting agro-climate conducive cropping pattern
    • eg. below sea level farming in Kuttanad in Kerala, adapted to deep water situation and floods
  5. promoting Sustainable Ari and Food security
    • will help in achieving goals under NMSAby promoting efficient use of resources, less energy intensive, reducing farm GHG emissions while safeguarding food security
116
Q

Conservation agri and its significance in agri dev in India: Diagram#2 and conclusion?

A

However, challenges like lack of awareness, market connectivity, policy inertia etc. Need to propagate it using reach of schemes like PMKSY, PKVY, Soil Health cars scheme etc.

117
Q

“Prospects for doubling Farmers’ income to address agrarian distress in different parts of the country”: intro?

A
  • Agriculture has been a key contributor to India’s growth story, where 650 million people or 58 per cent of Indian households are directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture
  • In recent years, crop failures, indebtedness, non-remunerative prices, and low returns have resulted in agrarian distress in most parts of the country.
118
Q

“Prospects for doubling Farmers’ income to address agrarian distress in different parts of the country”: urgent need for DFI? DIAGRAM?

A
  • Past strategies for agri sector hv primarily focussed on raising agri o/p and improving food security. This improved food production bt forgot the producers.
  • NSSO data on Consumption Expenditure survey for 2011-12: 20% of farming HH hv income less than Povert line.
  • States like JH see poverty incidence among farm HH as high as 45%
  • As late as 2011-12, income of farmer remained less than 1/3rd of an avg non-agri worker
  • The persistent agrarian distress resulted in rampant farmers distress during 1995-24
119
Q

“Prospects for doubling Farmers’ income to address agrarian distress in different parts of the country”: prospects in hilly region and NE?

A
  • cause: poor crop diversification and lack of modernisation
  • solutions:
    • Agri-diversification
    • Livestock productivity enhancement (Pashmina Goats in Ladakh, poultry in Arunachal Pradesh)
    • Agro-Tourism
    • CASE STUDY: organic agri in Sikkim, first state to become 1% organic, farm incomes hv seen a rise with better Stds of lving for farmers
120
Q

“Prospects for doubling Farmers’ income to address agrarian distress in different parts of the country”: desert and dryland areas?

A
  • regions: desert areas of RJ,dryland regions of Telangana, Rayalseema (AP), Marathwada an Vidarbha of MH
  • cause: poor resource utilisation as well as natural (physical and climatic) limitatins
  • soln
    • land water use efficiency by micro-irrigation techniques uner PMKSY
    • Conservation agri practices like crop diversification
    • Agro-climatic appropriate cropping eg. millets and pulses instead of water intensive crops like sugarcane
    • CASE STUDY: desert areas of RJ: livestock productivity, animal husbandry as secondary sources; shift towards food-processing
    • CASE STUDY: Vidarbha: drought prone; mixed farming with focus on dairy; districts like Latur, Osmanabad and Vidrabha can earn >250cr income.
121
Q

“Prospects for doubling Farmers’ income to address agrarian distress in different parts of the country”: Prospects in northern plain?

A
  • in plain areas of eastern UP, PJ plains
  • improvement in real prices of farmers by mkt reforms-eNAM, Mega food parks, reformed APMCs
122
Q

“Prospects for doubling Farmers’ income to address agrarian distress in different parts of the country”: coastal region?

A
  • encouraging food processing and mega food parks- enhancing mkt access, increase livestock and fisheries productivity
123
Q

“Prospects for doubling Farmers’ income to address agrarian distress in different parts of the country”: (BOX) 7 pronged structure to achieve DFI acc to Ashok Dalwai committe?

A
  1. increasing crop productivity (Mechanisation)
  2. Livestock productivity (Rashtriya Gokul mission)
  3. Resource use efficiency (Micro-irrigation under PMKSY)
  4. cropping intensity
  5. Agro and crop diversification (MIDH for horticulture)
  6. improving real prices (eNAM)
  7. shift to non-farm(food-processing, dairy)
124
Q

“Prospects for doubling Farmers’ income to address agrarian distress in different parts of the country”: concl?

A

potential bt also challenges

  • use of outdated tech
  • 65% marginal and small land holdings
  • low investment in agri R&D

Govt’s efforts in institutional reforms(Model APMC), agri practice reforms (micro-irrigation, soil health card), tech reforms (GIS, mechanisation)

125
Q

Salient features of Indian agri?

A
  1. Significance: 17.4% of GDP (1950: 55%); 49% of people in INdia depend on agri sector; the respective figures for developed contries are 2% and 2%. Largest unorganised sector accounting for more than 90% of total unorganised labor force; 1% increase in agri growth leads to 0.5% increase in Ind o/p growth and 0.7% growth in National Income; GoI announced Indian agri as prime moving force of economy in 2002.
  2. Subsistence agri: labor intensive
  3. Pressure of population on agri: both for employment and to provide food amid decreasing land avail due to increasing urbanisation; estimated that abt 4L Ha of farm land is being diverted to non-agri uses each yr
  4. importance of animals: ploughing, irrigation, threshing and transporting
  5. Monsoon dependency: <1/3rd of total cropped area is provided by perennial irrigation
  6. variety of crops: both tropical and temperate crops
  7. predominance of food crops: more than 2/3rd of TCA and >85% of net sown area; area under foodgrains >120mn Ha
  8. fodder crops largely neglected: although India has largest livestock population in the world; only 4% of reporting area to permanent pastures and other grazing lands; low productivity of farm animals
  9. seasonal pattern: Kharif, rabi and zaid
  10. Mixed cropping: sometimes 4-5 crops grown simultaneously in the same field; millets, maize an pulses in kharif while wheat, gram and barley in rabi; reduces overall agri o/p and per hectare yield
  11. high % of reporting area under cultivation: >140mn Hanet sown area out of total reporting area of 308mnHa i.e. ~46% as compared to 16% in USA and 12% in china.
  12. Share of India’s exports and imports in world trade stood at 24% and 1.4% respectively in 2016. as a % of Agri GDP, agri exports=~12.5% while agri imports=6.1% in 2016-17
126
Q

Determinants of agriculture: Physical factors: relief?

A
  1. effect of altitude: decreasing temp with height affecting agri productivity, types of crops and agri ops.
    1. Plains:most preferred; agri ops like ploughing, sowing, weeding and thinning much easier; fertile soil too; intensive agri; food rains along wih commercial crops (rice + orchards of coconut in coastal plains)
    2. plateaus: foodgrains and some plantation crops; however only selected parts are suitable while other parts are characterised by rugged topography, dissected surface, steep scarps, shallow soils, bare rocks etc
    3. mountains: least preferred coz of high altitude, steep slope, immature soil, low temp, low pressure, rarified air and shortage of O2; no agri possible above 3500m in HImalayas; Sher Singh Dhillon has identified 6-fold altitudinal agro-climatic zones based on seasonal rhythmand temperature in western HImalayas; on slopes of eastern HImalayas and Nilgiri hills, plantations dominate; coffe+tea plantations in S. India
127
Q

Determinants of agriculture: Physical factors: climate?

A

most potent physical factor

  1. temperature:crop specific ‘optimum temperature’. Cardinal temp points: min,max and optimum temp; Thermal constants: every crop needs a certain no. of effective heat units for germination, growth, stalking, maturing and ripening. acc to Scimper, crucial air temp is 6deg C above which plants starts growing. reflected in areal distri of crops in India: rice in south while wheat in winter of NW; sugarcane slowly shifting frm North to South India
  2. Frost: cotton and sugarcane need frost free season in growing season
  3. winds: both direct(mechanical effect of strong winds in May and June on banana plantations) and indirect effect(high humidity retards transpiration and promotes growth; agents of erosion)
  4. snow: loss of pastures in higher reaches of Himalayas; Transhumance; some positives too like cool climate to orchards esp of apples at lower altitudes; snow melt->water as well as springs, rich in mineral content
  5. moisture: for every crop, optimum moisture level; excessive-> reduces qty of O2 in soil and increases formation of toxic compounds in soil; shortage->needs irrigation
  6. rainfall: single most dominant climatic factor; influences intensity and location of farming systems as well as choice eg. isohyet of 100cm rf roughly divides rice and wheat producing areas. In addition to total amt of rf, seasonal distri is also imp; effective rainfall(total-total possible evaporation- potential evapo-transpiration)
  7. sunlight and sunshine: (i) photosynthesis and (ii) help in production of chlorophyll; eg of sunflower
128
Q

Determinants of agriculture: Physical factors: soil?

A
  1. Great civilizations invariably in areas of fertile soil
  2. physical characterestics: texture, structure and porosity as well as color and temp
  3. chemical charac: minerals and nutrients present in the soil along with organic content.
  • alluvial: wheat, maize, barley, gram
  • clayey loams: rice, jute
  • regur: cotton, wheat, oilseed
  • sandy loams: jowar, bajra, ground nut, pulses
  • red and yellow soils: lowar, groundnut, sugarcane.
129
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: Land Holdings?

A
  • Total no. of operational holdings: 138mn in 210-11.
  • Land holding (no. of): size wise distribution and change since 1970
    • Marginal: 36mn(1970-71) –> 93mn(2010-11)
    • Small: 13mn–> 25mn
    • Medium: 19Mn –> 20Mn
    • Large: 3Mn –> 1Mn
  • avg size of land holding reduced frm 1.33ha in 2000 to 1.15 ha in 2010-11
  • abt 67% of land holding < 1Ha with their avg size as low as 0.38Ha- too small to be optimally productive; small and marginal holdings together constitute 85% of land holdings and 44% of TCA
  • wide inter-state variations: 0.22 ha avg in Kerala to 6 Ha in Nagaland; apart frm NE states, where though large bt agri holdings hv other handicaps like rugged terrain, most states hv avg land holding size<2ha
130
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: Economic Land holding?

A
  • Congress agrarian reforms Committee (1949) defined: an econ holding as one which could provide a reasonable std of livingto the cultivator and give full employment for a family of normal size.
  • concept used to fix upper limit for size land holdings because no Zamindar can possess land more than 3X economic holding
  • Factors affecting size of land holding:
    • Fertility of soil
    • irrigation
    • type of agri: intensive vs extensive
    • farm mechanisation: difficult to manage more than 6-8 Ha of agri land if has to work by hands with primitive tools
    • types of crops: veggie-<2Ha enough; for wheat- at least 8Ha reqd for yr long employment.
131
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: Land Holdings betn different social grps?

A

SCs:12.4%

STs: 8.71%

women: 12.8% covering 10.3% area of TCA

132
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: Land Holdings classification?

A
  1. Economic Holding; ensures min satisfactory stds of living in a family
  2. Family Holding: holding which gives work to an avg size family having one plough under traditional farming system
  3. optimum holding; max size of holding which must be possessed and owned by a family
133
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: Land Reforms: objectives and components?

A
  • obj: (i)make optimum use of land for max benefit frm frm labor and capital i/p (ii) fixing size of land holdings and redistributing surplus land to give security to actual tiller of land.
  • Components:
    • Abolition of intermediaries
    • Tenancy reform
    • Ceiling and redistribution
    • agrarian reorganisation incl consolidation and prevention of fragmentatio
    • cooperative farming
    • improvement in land record keeping
134
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: Land Reforms: abolution of intermediaries?

A
  • before indep, Zamindari or Permanent system(Most of North INdia and covered 58% of TCA), Mahalwari system (intro betn 1820 and 1840 in PJ, parts of MP and Odisha; 5% of TCA) and Ryotwari system(by Thomas Munro; first in Madras in 1792 and then in Bombay in 1817-18; prevalent in most of S. India and covered 38% of TCA). These systems led to highly unequal distri of land
  • Zamindari system and Ryotwari system (also allowed subletting and transfer of land) led to proliferation of intermediaries and absentee landlords
  • Acc to Royal commission on Agri,1924-25, 86% of TCA ws held by 12% of cultivators; due to transferability and high rent, land began to be transferred frm farmers to money-lenders
  • In Zamindari areas, full-fledged hierarchies-landlords, raiyats (tenants with heritable rights), sub-tenants, share-croppers and agri labourers
  • After indepen, steps taken, beginning in Madras; led to abolition of 2.6L zamindars and intermediaries and 3Mn tenants and share-croppers acquired ownership over 25L Ha of CA in the country; led to emergence of middle class of INdian peasantry
  • Though due to many loopholes and drawbacks, abolition of Zamindari not completely successful esp in Bihar, Odisha, RJ, MP and WB
135
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: Land Reforms: tenancy reforms?

A
  • before indep, tenancy cultivation common; small, marginal and landless labourers were forced to till the lands of big landlords as they didn’t hv their wn land in sufficient measure.
  • Three types of tenants:
    • occupancy of permanent tenants with heritable rights
    • tenants at will or temp tenants
    • sub-tenants or shikmi-kisan

The last two suffer most

  • even after so many yrs of reforms,20% of agri land is devoted to share cropping where rent is as high as 67% of produce
  • Inspite of National policy to give ful ownership of land to actual cultivators, desired results not achieved due to weak legislationa nd faulty implementation.
  • However under tenancy reforms, 113L cultivators hv acquired ownership rights over 62 LHa
  • tenancy reforms:
    • regulation of rent: ceilings set at 20-25% in almost all states; in MH,1/6th
    • security of tenancy; implementation weak as seeking recourse of law for poor tenants is not easy; though some success like operation Barga in WB; land tribunals set up in KN
    • conferment of ownership on tenants
    • Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Rights) act 2006: heritable, inalienable right to use 2.5ha of forest land per family
  • Commercial tenancy: a new form; in areas where agri is technologically more advanced, small farmers lease their land to bigger farmers as the former cannot afford high tech i/p. eg. PJ
136
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: Land Reforms: Ceilings on Landholdings?

A
  • ceiling laws were enacted and enforced in 2 phases: first phase,1960-1972, largely treated land holder as unit of application; second phase after 1972, held family as basis of holding
  • eg, in Bihar, for irrigated land with two crops, ceiling is at 15-18acres, while for irrigated land with one crop, ceilin is at 25acres and for dry land it is at 30-45acres
  • Till 2004, under land ceiling laws, only 73LHa ws declared surplus (<2% of TCA) out of which 54.3LHa were redistributed among 57.5L small amd marginal farmers, 30% of which were SCs&STs
137
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: Land Reforms: Ceilings on Landholdings: reasons for failures?

A
  • 2X ceiling limit for families with >5members
  • separate ceiling limits to major sons of the family
  • provision to treat every share-holder of a joint family as a separate unit for ceiling limits
  • exemption of plantation gardens, religious and charitable insti frm ceiling
  • individual states allowed landhholders to retain control, mostly through benami transactions
  • misuse of exemptions and classification of land
  • non-appliation of ceiling to land newly brought under irrigation by public investment.
  • Lack of accurate updated records of land rights
138
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: Land Reforms: consolidation of land holdings?

A
  • consolidated and the redivided into ‘chaks’ and allotted to individual farmers
  • Laws for this passed in 15 states
  • upto 2004, consolidation was completed for 66.5MHa(~49% of INdia’s agri land); bt shown its impact in only a few states like PJ, Haryana, western UP while it has not even started Raj and some S. Indian states
  • causes of limited success:
    • emotional attachment to land
    • fear of being allotted infertile land
    • lengthy and cumbersome process and fear of corruption
    • lack of cooperation with farmers
    • where cosnolidation did happen, large scale litigation
    • hereditary division oflands again divides the land
    • in every consolidation, 5-10% of village land is taken out for providing housing land for weaker sections, chak roads etc.
    • cost of consolidation realised frm farmerss
    • generally, small farmers get less fertile land due to corruption
139
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: Land Reforms: cooperative farming?

A
  • a type offarming in which farmers pool their resources and distribute the agri produce in proportion to their resources
  • represents institutionalization of the principle and impulse of mutual aid.combines freedom and benefit of small man with benefit of large scale mgmt and org.
  • started way back in 1882, emphasis started only after indep
  • not satisfactory results: ~60% of coop societies are nt functioning satisfactorily
140
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: Land Reforms: land records?

A
  • centrally sponsored scheme for updating land records and strengthening the revenue admin was introduced during 7th FYP
141
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: food policy of INdia?

A

3 Phases:

  1. for first 3 decades after indep; main aim- achieving physical access to food; at the end, GR; at the end of 1980s, India was a self-sufficient country with regard to food
  2. Challenge of economic access: by 2000, paradoxical situation as we had 3X buffer stocks of foodgrains in central pool, bt still people dying due to lack of food inseveral states; PIL by PUCL in SC and a national level ‘food for work’ came up
  3. Frm mid 1990s, another aspect was added on- ecological access to food i.e. Sustainable agri
142
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: need?

A
  • annual rf>100cm: 30% of TCA; 75-100cm: 35%; <75cm: 34%
  • Therefore, 2/3rd of TCA needs irrigationfacilities
  • even in areas with sufficient rf, irrigation needed to further increase farm productivity: yields of irrigated crops 50-100% higher than unirrigated under similar geog conditions
  • mosoon gaps
  • seasonal and torrential (it pours, never rains in India) nature of Indian monsoons: dry season varies frm 5 months in Kerala to 9 months in NW
  • certain crops like rice, sugarcane requre evn more water
  • HYV seeds intro
143
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: geog factors favoring irrigation?

A
  • fresh water supply, esp perennial rivers
  • gentle slope
  • soft and friable soil for easy constr of canals
  • deep clay in sub-soil acts as reservoir for rainwater that percolates downward
144
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: types of irrigation projects?

A
  1. Major: Cultivale Command Area (CCA) >10000Ha
  2. Medium: 2000-10000Ha
  3. Minor: <2000Ha
145
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: types of irrigation techniques?

A
  • surface irrigation: aka flood irrigation; simple gravity flow; sub divided into furrow, border strip and basin irrigation
  • localized irrigation: water distri under low P through a piped network, in a re-determined pattern and applied as a small discharge to each plant
    • Drip irrigation: aka trickle irrigation; delivered at or near the root zone of of plants, drop by drop; most water efficient method, if managed properly since evaporation and runoff are minimized; often combined with plastic mulch, further reducing evaporation
  • Sprinkler irrigation: aka overhead irrigation; water is piped to one or more central locations and distri by overhead permanently installed risers; rotor or travelling variant.
  • Sub-irrigation: sometimes called seepage irrigation used in areas with high water tables; artificially raising the water table to allow the soil to be moistened frm below; in permanent grasslands in lowlands or river valleys; also used in commercial Greenhouse production.
146
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: growth?

A
  • Net irrigated area: 21MHa(1950-51) to 68MHa (2013-14)
  • ultimate irriation potential=139MHa
147
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: tank irrigation?

A
  • abt 5L big and 50L small tanks irrigating nearly 2.2MHa (3.5% of total irrigated area down frm 14% in 1960-61)
  • popular in peninsular plateau, mainly AndhraP nd Telangana. reason:
    • undulating relief and hard rocks: difficult to dig canals nd wells
    • little percolation of water
    • seasonal rivers: canals supply low
    • several streams which become torrential during rainy seaon: can be best used only by impounding them by constructing bunds
    • scattered nature of pop and agri fields
148
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: wells and tubewells?

A
  • popular in large part of NP, deltaic regions of Mahandai, Godavari, Krishna, cauvery and parts of Narmada and Tapi valley and weathered layers of deccan Trap
  • Large parts of Penin: hard rocks, not suitable
  • RJ, Haryana PJ: brackish GW
  • 5mn wells in 1950-51 to 12mn in 2014 (63% of net irrigated area in country)
  • tubewells: 2L in 1960-61 to 5mn in 2011-12
149
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: wells and tubewells: merits and demerits?

A

Merits

  • simplest and cheapest
  • independent source
  • canal: excessive use can lead to problem of ‘reh’
  • limit to extent of canal irrigation
  • several minerals like nitrate, chloride mixed in well water- good for crops
  • farmer has to pay regularly for canal irrigation

Limitations

  • only ltd are: 1-8ha
  • may dry up is excess water taken out
  • drought
  • excess use: GW turns brackish
150
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: canals?

A
  • most imp source of iirgation upto 1960s; nw 2nd most imp source
  • effective in areas of low relief, deep fertile soil, perennial source nearby and extensive command area
  • mainly concentrated in northern plains and some in coastal and delta regions
  • two types in India:
    • inundation canals: taken out frm rivers without any regulating systems; effective mainly in rainy season
    • perennial canals: taken off frm perennial rivers by constructing a barrage across the river
  • net area under canal irrigation :16.5MHa
151
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: intensity of irrigation?

A
  • % of net irrigated area to net sown area
  • high (>60%) in Kashmir valley, large parts of PJ and Haryana, Ganga-Yamuna Doab, South Bihar plain and deltaic region in south
  • low (15-30%) in parts of Brahmputra plain and penin plateau, large parts of RJ, west of aravallis, parts of Bihar plain
152
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: challenges?

A
  • growth of irrigation facilities has failed to keep pace with increasing demand
  • slow potential growth of major/medium projects (12MHa in 1stFYP to 42 MHa in 10thFYP(2002-07)), as compared to growth of minor projects potential frm 26MHa to 60MHa
  • widening gap betn potential created and potential utilized
  • in minor irrigation projects, over-exploitation of GW
  • deceleration in irrigation investment: 23% in 1st FYP to 6% in 10th FYP (AIBP for completion of incomplete irrigation projects, has created 8.5MHa irrigation potential)
  • Large variation in % of irrigated area under different crops (52% of area under foodgrains vs 9% for Bajra vs 95% for sugarcane)
  • low efficiency of water use:38-40% for canal irrigation against ideal value of 60% (usually for GW based irrigation scheme)
153
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: power?

A
  • avg farm power availability has for cultivated areas has increased frm 0.48kW/ha in 1975 to 2.6kW/ha in 2014; however still much lower than USA (>6kW/ha)
  • consumption of electricity in agri has increased frm 23400 GWh in 1985 to 170000GWh in 2014
  • large inter-state variation: MH, andraP leaders while most of NE are least dev in this regard
154
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: connectivity?

A
  • total length of village roads 25Lkm, still not sufficient considering size of the country and % of people living in rural areas
  • only abt 15% of village roads are surfaced
  • PMGSY; also identified rural roads as one of the 6 components of Bharat Nirman
155
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: agri credit?

A
  • post indep, credit insti were developed in 3 phases:
    1. 1947-1969: coop agenices were main insti
    2. 1969-1975: commercial banks supplemented by coop societies
    3. 1975 onwards: RRBs were established
  • cooperative credit services: two wings:
    • short term credit: for production purpose; includes SCBs, DCCBs and PACs
    • long term credit: for land dev and capital expenditure; PCARD and SCARD
    • financed by NABARD
  • commercial banks: PSL;1969: out of 8000+ branches, only 1800+ located in rural or semi-urban and only 2L agri borrowing accts; 2007: >16mn agri borrowing accts accounting for ~70% of agri credit.
  • KCC: intro in 1998; flexible, hassle-free and cost effective credit
156
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: agri insurance?

A

Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana

  • uniform premium of only 2% (Kharif), 1.5% (Rabi) and 5%(annual commercial and horticultural crops).
  • no upper limit on Government subsidy.
  • Earlier, there was a provision of capping the premium rate which resulted in low claims being paid to farmers. This capping has now been removed and farmers will get claim against full sum insured without any reduction.
  • use of technology will be encouraged to a great extent. Smart phones will be used to capture and upload data of crop cutting to reduce the delays in claim payment to farmers. Remote sensing will be used to reduce the number of crop cutting experiments.
  • PMFBY is a replacement scheme of NAIS / MNAIS
  • Risks covered: Yield Losses (standing crops, on notified area basis) due to non-preventable risks incl pests and diseases; In post-harvest losses, coverage will be available up to a maximum period of 14 days from harvesting for those crops which are kept in “cut & spread” condition to dry in the field; For certain localized problems, Loss / damage resulting from occurrence of identified localized risks like hailstorm, landslide, and Inundation affecting isolated farms in the notified area would also be covered.
  • Area Approach basis’ i.e., Defined Areas for each notified crop
157
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: agri insurance: performance of PMFBY?

A

Evaluation by MoA&FW

  • scheme has an edge over the previous (NAIS) but still needs to provide insurance companies performance linked incentive or penalise them for below-par performance
  • enrolment of farmers has reduced significantly in the past two years, the report added that even the area covered is reducing (area insured per farmer in the crop in 2017-18 was 0.02 hectares lesser than that in 2016-17). Three-fourth of total claims and three-fourth of total premium is concentrated only in 25 per cent of the districts
  • total sum insured under the scheme in 2017-18 was Rs. 1.91 lakh crore
  • average premium paid by each farmer was Rs. 4,634,
  • also recommended the use of crop-cutting technology that allows measuring yield, increasing operational window for insurance companies, and lowering the number of insurance companies under the scheme.
158
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: marketing?

A
  • Agri Produce (grading and mktng) act 1937 bt real dev started in 1960s aftr GR
  • growth of agri mkts in 1990s led to all states passing state APMC acts; >7000 regulated mkts in 2010; model APMC act in 2003; eNAM
  • for grading, 105 grading and mktng rules covering >200 commodities hv been notified under Agri Produce (G&M) act 1937.
159
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: storage and warehousing?

A
  • FCI and CWC along with State govts and State warehousing corp
  • 2012: FCI had a storage capacity of 30MT whereas state agencies had capacity of 15.5MT
  • shortage of storage facilities:In 2012, out of 58MT grain stocks, 42MT were stored in covered storage, and remaining in open; rice nd wheat costing >2000cr was lost in storage and transit betn 2010 and 2012.
  • Govt schemes: Pvt Entrepreneurs Guarantee (PEG) scheme; Gramin Bhandaran yojana(2001) to create a network of rural godowns
160
Q

determinants of agri: technological factors: seeds?

A
161
Q

Salient features of Indian agri?

A
  1. Significance: 17.4% of GDP (1950: 55%); 49% of people in INdia depend on agri sector; the respective figures for developed contries are 2% and 2%. Largest unorganised sector accounting for more than 90% of total unorganised labor force; 1% increase in agri growth leads to 0.5% increase in Ind o/p growth and 0.7% growth in National Income; GoI announced Indian agri as prime moving force of economy in 2002.
  2. Subsistence agri: labor intensive
  3. Pressure of population on agri: both for employment and to provide food amid decreasing land avail due to increasing urbanisation; estimated that abt 4L Ha of farm land is being diverted to non-agri uses each yr
  4. importance of animals: ploughing, irrigation, threshing and transporting
  5. Monsoon dependency: <1/3rd of total cropped area is provided by perennial irrigation
  6. variety of crops: both tropical and temperate crops
  7. predominance of food crops: more than 2/3rd of TCA and >85% of net sown area; area under foodgrains >120mn Ha
  8. fodder crops largely neglected: although India has largest livestock population in the world; only 4% of reporting area to permanent pastures and other grazing lands; low productivity of farm animals
  9. seasonal pattern: Kharif, rabi and zaid
  10. Mixed cropping: sometimes 4-5 crops grown simultaneously in the same field; millets, maize an pulses in kharif while wheat, gram and barley in rabi; reduces overall agri o/p and per hectare yield
  11. high % of reporting area under cultivation: >140mn Hanet sown area out of total reporting area of 308mnHa i.e. ~46% as compared to 16% in USA and 12% in china.
  12. Share of India’s exports and imports in world trade stood at 24% and 1.4% respectively in 2016. as a % of Agri GDP, agri exports=~12.5% while agri imports=6.1% in 2016-17
162
Q

Determinants of agriculture: Physical factors: relief?

A
  1. effect of altitude: decreasing temp with height affecting agri productivity, types of crops and agri ops.
    1. Plains:most preferred; agri ops like ploughing, sowing, weeding and thinning much easier; fertile soil too; intensive agri; food rains along wih commercial crops (rice + orchards of coconut in coastal plains)
    2. plateaus: foodgrains and some plantation crops; however only selected parts are suitable while other parts are characterised by rugged topography, dissected surface, steep scarps, shallow soils, bare rocks etc
    3. mountains: least preferred coz of high altitude, steep slope, immature soil, low temp, low pressure, rarified air and shortage of O2; no agri possible above 3500m in HImalayas; Sher Singh Dhillon has identified 6-fold altitudinal agro-climatic zones based on seasonal rhythmand temperature in western HImalayas; on slopes of eastern HImalayas and Nilgiri hills, plantations dominate; coffe+tea plantations in S. India
163
Q

Determinants of agriculture: Physical factors: climate?

A

most potent physical factor

  1. temperature:crop specific ‘optimum temperature’. Cardinal temp points: min,max and optimum temp; Thermal constants: every crop needs a certain no. of effective heat units for germination, growth, stalking, maturing and ripening. acc to Scimper, crucial air temp is 6deg C above which plants starts growing. reflected in areal distri of crops in India: rice in south while wheat in winter of NW; sugarcane slowly shifting frm North to South India
  2. Frost: cotton and sugarcane need frost free season in growing season
  3. winds: both direct(mechanical effect of strong winds in May and June on banana plantations) and indirect effect(high humidity retards transpiration and promotes growth; agents of erosion)
  4. snow: loss of pastures in higher reaches of Himalayas; Transhumance; some positives too like cool climate to orchards esp of apples at lower altitudes; snow melt->water as well as springs, rich in mineral content
  5. moisture: for every crop, optimum moisture level; excessive-> reduces qty of O2 in soil and increases formation of toxic compounds in soil; shortage->needs irrigation
  6. rainfall: single most dominant climatic factor; influences intensity and location of farming systems as well as choice eg. isohyet of 100cm rf roughly divides rice and wheat producing areas. In addition to total amt of rf, seasonal distri is also imp; effective rainfall(total-total possible evaporation- potential evapo-transpiration)
  7. sunlight and sunshine: (i) photosynthesis and (ii) help in production of chlorophyll; eg of sunflower
164
Q

Determinants of agriculture: Physical factors: soil?

A
  1. Great civilizations invariably in areas of fertile soil
  2. physical characterestics: texture, structure and porosity as well as color and temp
  3. chemical charac: minerals and nutrients present in the soil along with organic content.
  • alluvial: wheat, maize, barley, gram
  • clayey loams: rice, jute
  • regur: cotton, wheat, oilseed
  • sandy loams: jowar, bajra, ground nut, pulses
  • red and yellow soils: lowar, groundnut, sugarcane.
165
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: Land Holdings?

A
  • Total no. of operational holdings: 138mn in 210-11.
  • Land holding (no. of): size wise distribution and change since 1970
    • Marginal: 36mn(1970-71) –> 93mn(2010-11)
    • Small: 13mn–> 25mn
    • Medium: 19Mn –> 20Mn
    • Large: 3Mn –> 1Mn
  • avg size of land holding reduced frm 1.33ha in 2000 to 1.15 ha in 2010-11
  • abt 67% of land holding < 1Ha with their avg size as low as 0.38Ha- too small to be optimally productive; small and marginal holdings together constitute 85% of land holdings and 44% of TCA
  • wide inter-state variations: 0.22 ha avg in Kerala to 6 Ha in Nagaland; apart frm NE states, where though large bt agri holdings hv other handicaps like rugged terrain, most states hv avg land holding size<2ha
166
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: Economic Land holding?

A
  • Congress agrarian reforms Committee (1949) defined: an econ holding as one which could provide a reasonable std of livingto the cultivator and give full employment for a family of normal size.
  • concept used to fix upper limit for size land holdings because no Zamindar can possess land more than 3X economic holding
  • Factors affecting size of land holding:
    • Fertility of soil
    • irrigation
    • type of agri: intensive vs extensive
    • farm mechanisation: difficult to manage more than 6-8 Ha of agri land if has to work by hands with primitive tools
    • types of crops: veggie-<2Ha enough; for wheat- at least 8Ha reqd for yr long employment.
167
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: Land Holdings betn different social grps?

A

SCs:12.4%

STs: 8.71%

women: 12.8% covering 10.3% area of TCA

168
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: Land Holdings classification?

A
  1. Economic Holding; ensures min satisfactory stds of living in a family
  2. Family Holding: holding which gives work to an avg size family having one plough under traditional farming system
  3. optimum holding; max size of holding which must be possessed and owned by a family
169
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: Land Reforms: objectives and components?

A
  • obj: (i)make optimum use of land for max benefit frm frm labor and capital i/p (ii) fixing size of land holdings and redistributing surplus land to give security to actual tiller of land.
  • Components:
    • Abolition of intermediaries
    • Tenancy reform
    • Ceiling and redistribution
    • agrarian reorganisation incl consolidation and prevention of fragmentatio
    • cooperative farming
    • improvement in land record keeping
170
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: Land Reforms: abolution of intermediaries?

A
  • before indep, Zamindari or Permanent system(Most of North INdia and covered 58% of TCA), Mahalwari system (intro betn 1820 and 1840 in PJ, parts of MP and Odisha; 5% of TCA) and Ryotwari system(by Thomas Munro; first in Madras in 1792 and then in Bombay in 1817-18; prevalent in most of S. India and covered 38% of TCA). These systems led to highly unequal distri of land
  • Zamindari system and Ryotwari system (also allowed subletting and transfer of land) led to proliferation of intermediaries and absentee landlords
  • Acc to Royal commission on Agri,1924-25, 86% of TCA ws held by 12% of cultivators; due to transferability and high rent, land began to be transferred frm farmers to money-lenders
  • In Zamindari areas, full-fledged hierarchies-landlords, raiyats (tenants with heritable rights), sub-tenants, share-croppers and agri labourers
  • After indepen, steps taken, beginning in Madras; led to abolition of 2.6L zamindars and intermediaries and 3Mn tenants and share-croppers acquired ownership over 25L Ha of CA in the country; led to emergence of middle class of INdian peasantry
  • Though due to many loopholes and drawbacks, abolition of Zamindari not completely successful esp in Bihar, Odisha, RJ, MP and WB
171
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: Land Reforms: tenancy reforms?

A
  • before indep, tenancy cultivation common; small, marginal and landless labourers were forced to till the lands of big landlords as they didn’t hv their wn land in sufficient measure.
  • Three types of tenants:
    • occupancy of permanent tenants with heritable rights
    • tenants at will or temp tenants
    • sub-tenants or shikmi-kisan

The last two suffer most

  • even after so many yrs of reforms,20% of agri land is devoted to share cropping where rent is as high as 67% of produce
  • Inspite of National policy to give ful ownership of land to actual cultivators, desired results not achieved due to weak legislationa nd faulty implementation.
  • However under tenancy reforms, 113L cultivators hv acquired ownership rights over 62 LHa
  • tenancy reforms:
    • regulation of rent: ceilings set at 20-25% in almost all states; in MH,1/6th
    • security of tenancy; implementation weak as seeking recourse of law for poor tenants is not easy; though some success like operation Barga in WB; land tribunals set up in KN
    • conferment of ownership on tenants
    • Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Rights) act 2006: heritable, inalienable right to use 2.5ha of forest land per family
  • Commercial tenancy: a new form; in areas where agri is technologically more advanced, small farmers lease their land to bigger farmers as the former cannot afford high tech i/p. eg. PJ
172
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: Land Reforms: Ceilings on Landholdings?

A
  • ceiling laws were enacted and enforced in 2 phases: first phase,1960-1972, largely treated land holder as unit of application; second phase after 1972, held family as basis of holding
  • eg, in Bihar, for irrigated land with two crops, ceiling is at 15-18acres, while for irrigated land with one crop, ceilin is at 25acres and for dry land it is at 30-45acres
  • Till 2004, under land ceiling laws, only 73LHa ws declared surplus (<2% of TCA) out of which 54.3LHa were redistributed among 57.5L small amd marginal farmers, 30% of which were SCs&STs
173
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: Land Reforms: Ceilings on Landholdings: reasons for failures?

A
  • 2X ceiling limit for families with >5members
  • separate ceiling limits to major sons of the family
  • provision to treat every share-holder of a joint family as a separate unit for ceiling limits
  • exemption of plantation gardens, religious and charitable insti frm ceiling
  • individual states allowed landhholders to retain control, mostly through benami transactions
  • misuse of exemptions and classification of land
  • non-appliation of ceiling to land newly brought under irrigation by public investment.
  • Lack of accurate updated records of land rights
174
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: Land Reforms: consolidation of land holdings?

A
  • consolidated and the redivided into ‘chaks’ and allotted to individual farmers
  • Laws for this passed in 15 states
  • upto 2004, consolidation was completed for 66.5MHa(~49% of INdia’s agri land); bt shown its impact in only a few states like PJ, Haryana, western UP while it has not even started Raj and some S. Indian states
  • causes of limited success:
    • emotional attachment to land
    • fear of being allotted infertile land
    • lengthy and cumbersome process and fear of corruption
    • lack of cooperation with farmers
    • where cosnolidation did happen, large scale litigation
    • hereditary division oflands again divides the land
    • in every consolidation, 5-10% of village land is taken out for providing housing land for weaker sections, chak roads etc.
    • cost of consolidation realised frm farmerss
    • generally, small farmers get less fertile land due to corruption
175
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: Land Reforms: cooperative farming?

A
  • a type offarming in which farmers pool their resources and distribute the agri produce in proportion to their resources
  • represents institutionalization of the principle and impulse of mutual aid.combines freedom and benefit of small man with benefit of large scale mgmt and org.
  • started way back in 1882, emphasis started only after indep
  • not satisfactory results: ~60% of coop societies are nt functioning satisfactorily
176
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: Land Reforms: land records?

A
  • centrally sponsored scheme for updating land records and strengthening the revenue admin was introduced during 7th FYP
177
Q

determinants of agri: Institutional factors: food policy of INdia?

A

3 Phases:

  1. for first 3 decades after indep; main aim- achieving physical access to food; at the end, GR; at the end of 1980s, India was a self-sufficient country with regard to food
  2. Challenge of economic access: by 2000, paradoxical situation as we had 3X buffer stocks of foodgrains in central pool, bt still people dying due to lack of food inseveral states; PIL by PUCL in SC and a national level ‘food for work’ came up
  3. Frm mid 1990s, another aspect was added on- ecological access to food i.e. Sustainable agri
178
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: need?

A
  • annual rf>100cm: 30% of TCA; 75-100cm: 35%; <75cm: 34%
  • Therefore, 2/3rd of TCA needs irrigationfacilities
  • even in areas with sufficient rf, irrigation needed to further increase farm productivity: yields of irrigated crops 50-100% higher than unirrigated under similar geog conditions
  • mosoon gaps
  • seasonal and torrential (it pours, never rains in India) nature of Indian monsoons: dry season varies frm 5 months in Kerala to 9 months in NW
  • certain crops like rice, sugarcane requre evn more water
  • HYV seeds intro
179
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: geog factors favoring irrigation?

A
  • fresh water supply, esp perennial rivers
  • gentle slope
  • soft and friable soil for easy constr of canals
  • deep clay in sub-soil acts as reservoir for rainwater that percolates downward
180
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: types of irrigation projects?

A
  1. Major: Cultivale Command Area (CCA) >10000Ha
  2. Medium: 2000-10000Ha
  3. Minor: <2000Ha
181
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: types of irrigation techniques?

A
  • surface irrigation: aka flood irrigation; simple gravity flow; sub divided into furrow, border strip and basin irrigation
  • localized irrigation: water distri under low P through a piped network, in a re-determined pattern and applied as a small discharge to each plant
    • Drip irrigation: aka trickle irrigation; delivered at or near the root zone of of plants, drop by drop; most water efficient method, if managed properly since evaporation and runoff are minimized; often combined with plastic mulch, further reducing evaporation
  • Sprinkler irrigation: aka overhead irrigation; water is piped to one or more central locations and distri by overhead permanently installed risers; rotor or travelling variant.
  • Sub-irrigation: sometimes called seepage irrigation used in areas with high water tables; artificially raising the water table to allow the soil to be moistened frm below; in permanent grasslands in lowlands or river valleys; also used in commercial Greenhouse production.
182
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: tank irrigation?

A
  • abt 5L big and 50L small tanks irrigating nearly 2.2MHa (3.5% of total irrigated area down frm 14% in 1960-61)
  • popular in peninsular plateau, mainly AndhraP nd Telangana. reason:
    • undulating relief and hard rocks: difficult to dig canals nd wells
    • little percolation of water
    • seasonal rivers: canals supply low
    • several streams which become torrential during rainy seaon: can be best used only by impounding them by constructing bunds
    • scattered nature of pop and agri fields
183
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: wells and tubewells?

A
  • popular in large part of NP, deltaic regions of Mahandai, Godavari, Krishna, cauvery and parts of Narmada and Tapi valley and weathered layers of deccan Trap
  • Large parts of Penin: hard rocks, not suitable
  • RJ, Haryana PJ: brackish GW
  • 5mn wells in 1950-51 to 12mn in 2014 (63% of net irrigated area in country)
  • tubewells: 2L in 1960-61 to 5mn in 2011-12
184
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: wells and tubewells: merits and demerits?

A

Merits

  • simplest and cheapest
  • independent source
  • canal: excessive use can lead to problem of ‘reh’
  • limit to extent of canal irrigation
  • several minerals like nitrate, chloride mixed in well water- good for crops
  • farmer has to pay regularly for canal irrigation

Limitations

  • only ltd are: 1-8ha
  • may dry up is excess water taken out
  • drought
  • excess use: GW turns brackish
185
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: canals?

A
  • most imp source of iirgation upto 1960s; nw 2nd most imp source
  • effective in areas of low relief, deep fertile soil, perennial source nearby and extensive command area
  • mainly concentrated in northern plains and some in coastal and delta regions
  • two types in India:
    • inundation canals: taken out frm rivers without any regulating systems; effective mainly in rainy season
    • perennial canals: taken off frm perennial rivers by constructing a barrage across the river
  • net area under canal irrigation :16.5MHa
186
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: intensity of irrigation?

A
  • % of net irrigated area to net sown area
  • high (>60%) in Kashmir valley, large parts of PJ and Haryana, Ganga-Yamuna Doab, South Bihar plain and deltaic region in south
  • low (15-30%) in parts of Brahmputra plain and penin plateau, large parts of RJ, west of aravallis, parts of Bihar plain
187
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: challenges?

A
  • growth of irrigation facilities has failed to keep pace with increasing demand
  • slow potential growth of major/medium projects (12MHa in 1stFYP to 42 MHa in 10thFYP(2002-07)), as compared to growth of minor projects potential frm 26MHa to 60MHa
  • widening gap betn potential created and potential utilized
  • in minor irrigation projects, over-exploitation of GW
  • deceleration in irrigation investment: 23% in 1st FYP to 6% in 10th FYP (AIBP for completion of incomplete irrigation projects, has created 8.5MHa irrigation potential)
  • Large variation in % of irrigated area under different crops (52% of area under foodgrains vs 9% for Bajra vs 95% for sugarcane)
  • low efficiency of water use:38-40% for canal irrigation against ideal value of 60% (usually for GW based irrigation scheme)
188
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: power?

A
  • avg farm power availability has for cultivated areas has increased frm 0.48kW/ha in 1975 to 2.6kW/ha in 2014; however still much lower than USA (>6kW/ha)
  • consumption of electricity in agri has increased frm 23400 GWh in 1985 to 170000GWh in 2014
  • large inter-state variation: MH, andraP leaders while most of NE are least dev in this regard
189
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: connectivity?

A
  • total length of village roads 25Lkm, still not sufficient considering size of the country and % of people living in rural areas
  • only abt 15% of village roads are surfaced
  • PMGSY; also identified rural roads as one of the 6 components of Bharat Nirman
190
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: agri credit?

A
  • post indep, credit insti were developed in 3 phases:
    1. 1947-1969: coop agenices were main insti
    2. 1969-1975: commercial banks supplemented by coop societies
    3. 1975 onwards: RRBs were established
  • cooperative credit services: two wings:
    • short term credit: for production purpose; includes SCBs, DCCBs and PACs
    • long term credit: for land dev and capital expenditure; PCARD and SCARD
    • financed by NABARD
  • commercial banks: PSL;1969: out of 8000+ branches, only 1800+ located in rural or semi-urban and only 2L agri borrowing accts; 2007: >16mn agri borrowing accts accounting for ~70% of agri credit.
  • KCC: intro in 1998; flexible, hassle-free and cost effective credit
191
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: tank irrigation?

A
  • abt 5L big and 50L small tanks irrigating nearly 2.2MHa (3.5% of total irrigated area down frm 14% in 1960-61)
  • popular in peninsular plateau, mainly AndhraP nd Telangana. reason:
    • undulating relief and hard rocks: difficult to dig canals nd wells
    • little percolation of water
    • seasonal rivers: canals supply low
    • several streams which become torrential during rainy seaon: can be best used only by impounding them by constructing bunds
    • scattered nature of pop and agri fields
192
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: agri insurance?

A

Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana

  • uniform premium of only 2% (Kharif), 1.5% (Rabi) and 5%(annual commercial and horticultural crops).
  • no upper limit on Government subsidy.
  • Earlier, there was a provision of capping the premium rate which resulted in low claims being paid to farmers. This capping has now been removed and farmers will get claim against full sum insured without any reduction.
  • use of technology will be encouraged to a great extent. Smart phones will be used to capture and upload data of crop cutting to reduce the delays in claim payment to farmers. Remote sensing will be used to reduce the number of crop cutting experiments.
  • PMFBY is a replacement scheme of NAIS / MNAIS
  • Risks covered: Yield Losses (standing crops, on notified area basis) due to non-preventable risks incl pests and diseases; In post-harvest losses, coverage will be available up to a maximum period of 14 days from harvesting for those crops which are kept in “cut & spread” condition to dry in the field; For certain localized problems, Loss / damage resulting from occurrence of identified localized risks like hailstorm, landslide, and Inundation affecting isolated farms in the notified area would also be covered.
  • Area Approach basis’ i.e., Defined Areas for each notified crop
193
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: wells and tubewells?

A
  • popular in large part of NP, deltaic regions of Mahandai, Godavari, Krishna, cauvery and parts of Narmada and Tapi valley and weathered layers of deccan Trap
  • Large parts of Penin: hard rocks, not suitable
  • RJ, Haryana PJ: brackish GW
  • 5mn wells in 1950-51 to 12mn in 2014 (63% of net irrigated area in country)
  • tubewells: 2L in 1960-61 to 5mn in 2011-12
194
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: agri insurance: performance of PMFBY?

A

Evaluation by MoA&FW

  • scheme has an edge over the previous (NAIS) but still needs to provide insurance companies performance linked incentive or penalise them for below-par performance
  • enrolment of farmers has reduced significantly in the past two years, the report added that even the area covered is reducing (area insured per farmer in the crop in 2017-18 was 0.02 hectares lesser than that in 2016-17). Three-fourth of total claims and three-fourth of total premium is concentrated only in 25 per cent of the districts
  • total sum insured under the scheme in 2017-18 was Rs. 1.91 lakh crore
  • average premium paid by each farmer was Rs. 4,634,
  • also recommended the use of crop-cutting technology that allows measuring yield, increasing operational window for insurance companies, and lowering the number of insurance companies under the scheme.
195
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: wells and tubewells: merits and demerits?

A

Merits

  • simplest and cheapest
  • independent source
  • canal: excessive use can lead to problem of ‘reh’
  • limit to extent of canal irrigation
  • several minerals like nitrate, chloride mixed in well water- good for crops
  • farmer has to pay regularly for canal irrigation

Limitations

  • only ltd are: 1-8ha
  • may dry up is excess water taken out
  • drought
  • excess use: GW turns brackish
196
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: marketing?

A
  • Agri Produce (grading and mktng) act 1937 bt real dev started in 1960s aftr GR
  • growth of agri mkts in 1990s led to all states passing state APMC acts; >7000 regulated mkts in 2010; model APMC act in 2003; eNAM
  • for grading, 105 grading and mktng rules covering >200 commodities hv been notified under Agri Produce (G&M) act 1937.
197
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: canals?

A
  • most imp source of iirgation upto 1960s; nw 2nd most imp source
  • effective in areas of low relief, deep fertile soil, perennial source nearby and extensive command area
  • mainly concentrated in northern plains and some in coastal and delta regions
  • two types in India:
    • inundation canals: taken out frm rivers without any regulating systems; effective mainly in rainy season
    • perennial canals: taken off frm perennial rivers by constructing a barrage across the river
  • net area under canal irrigation :16.5MHa
198
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: storage and warehousing?

A
  • FCI and CWC along with State govts and State warehousing corp
  • 2012: FCI had a storage capacity of 30MT whereas state agencies had capacity of 15.5MT
  • shortage of storage facilities:In 2012, out of 58MT grain stocks, 42MT were stored in covered storage, and remaining in open; rice nd wheat costing >2000cr was lost in storage and transit betn 2010 and 2012.
  • Govt schemes: Pvt Entrepreneurs Guarantee (PEG) scheme; Gramin Bhandaran yojana(2001) to create a network of rural godowns
199
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: intensity of irrigation?

A
  • % of net irrigated area to net sown area
  • high (>60%) in Kashmir valley, large parts of PJ and Haryana, Ganga-Yamuna Doab, South Bihar plain and deltaic region in south
  • low (15-30%) in parts of Brahmputra plain and penin plateau, large parts of RJ, west of aravallis, parts of Bihar plain
200
Q

determinants of agri: technological factors: seeds?

A
201
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: challenges?

A
  • growth of irrigation facilities has failed to keep pace with increasing demand
  • slow potential growth of major/medium projects (12MHa in 1stFYP to 42 MHa in 10thFYP(2002-07)), as compared to growth of minor projects potential frm 26MHa to 60MHa
  • widening gap betn potential created and potential utilized
  • in minor irrigation projects, over-exploitation of GW
  • deceleration in irrigation investment: 23% in 1st FYP to 6% in 10th FYP (AIBP for completion of incomplete irrigation projects, has created 8.5MHa irrigation potential)
  • Large variation in % of irrigated area under different crops (52% of area under foodgrains vs 9% for Bajra vs 95% for sugarcane)
  • low efficiency of water use:38-40% for canal irrigation against ideal value of 60% (usually for GW based irrigation scheme)
202
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: growth?

A
  • Net irrigated area: 21MHa(1950-51) to 68MHa (2013-14)
  • ultimate irriation potential=139MHa
203
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: power?

A
  • avg farm power availability has for cultivated areas has increased frm 0.48kW/ha in 1975 to 2.6kW/ha in 2014; however still much lower than USA (>6kW/ha)
  • consumption of electricity in agri has increased frm 23400 GWh in 1985 to 170000GWh in 2014
  • large inter-state variation: MH, andraP leaders while most of NE are least dev in this regard
204
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: connectivity?

A
  • total length of village roads 25Lkm, still not sufficient considering size of the country and % of people living in rural areas
  • only abt 15% of village roads are surfaced
  • PMGSY; also identified rural roads as one of the 6 components of Bharat Nirman
205
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: agri credit?

A
  • post indep, credit insti were developed in 3 phases:
    1. 1947-1969: coop agenices were main insti
    2. 1969-1975: commercial banks supplemented by coop societies
    3. 1975 onwards: RRBs were established
  • cooperative credit services: two wings:
    • short term credit: for production purpose; includes SCBs, DCCBs and PACs
    • long term credit: for land dev and capital expenditure; PCARD and SCARD
    • financed by NABARD
  • commercial banks: PSL;1969: out of 8000+ branches, only 1800+ located in rural or semi-urban and only 2L agri borrowing accts; 2007: >16mn agri borrowing accts accounting for ~70% of agri credit.
  • KCC: intro in 1998; flexible, hassle-free and cost effective credit
206
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: agri insurance?

A

Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana

  • uniform premium of only 2% (Kharif), 1.5% (Rabi) and 5%(annual commercial and horticultural crops).
  • no upper limit on Government subsidy.
  • Earlier, there was a provision of capping the premium rate which resulted in low claims being paid to farmers. This capping has now been removed and farmers will get claim against full sum insured without any reduction.
  • use of technology will be encouraged to a great extent. Smart phones will be used to capture and upload data of crop cutting to reduce the delays in claim payment to farmers. Remote sensing will be used to reduce the number of crop cutting experiments.
  • PMFBY is a replacement scheme of NAIS / MNAIS
  • Risks covered: Yield Losses (standing crops, on notified area basis) due to non-preventable risks incl pests and diseases; In post-harvest losses, coverage will be available up to a maximum period of 14 days from harvesting for those crops which are kept in “cut & spread” condition to dry in the field; For certain localized problems, Loss / damage resulting from occurrence of identified localized risks like hailstorm, landslide, and Inundation affecting isolated farms in the notified area would also be covered.
  • Area Approach basis’ i.e., Defined Areas for each notified crop
207
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: agri insurance: performance of PMFBY?

A

Evaluation by MoA&FW

  • scheme has an edge over the previous (NAIS) but still needs to provide insurance companies performance linked incentive or penalise them for below-par performance
  • enrolment of farmers has reduced significantly in the past two years, the report added that even the area covered is reducing (area insured per farmer in the crop in 2017-18 was 0.02 hectares lesser than that in 2016-17). Three-fourth of total claims and three-fourth of total premium is concentrated only in 25 per cent of the districts
  • total sum insured under the scheme in 2017-18 was Rs. 1.91 lakh crore
  • average premium paid by each farmer was Rs. 4,634,
  • also recommended the use of crop-cutting technology that allows measuring yield, increasing operational window for insurance companies, and lowering the number of insurance companies under the scheme.
208
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: marketing?

A
  • Agri Produce (grading and mktng) act 1937 bt real dev started in 1960s aftr GR
  • growth of agri mkts in 1990s led to all states passing state APMC acts; >7000 regulated mkts in 2010; model APMC act in 2003; eNAM
  • for grading, 105 grading and mktng rules covering >200 commodities hv been notified under Agri Produce (G&M) act 1937.
209
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: storage and warehousing?

A
  • FCI and CWC along with State govts and State warehousing corp
  • 2012: FCI had a storage capacity of 30MT whereas state agencies had capacity of 15.5MT
  • shortage of storage facilities:In 2012, out of 58MT grain stocks, 42MT were stored in covered storage, and remaining in open; rice nd wheat costing >2000cr was lost in storage and transit betn 2010 and 2012.
  • Govt schemes: Pvt Entrepreneurs Guarantee (PEG) scheme; Gramin Bhandaran yojana(2001) to create a network of rural godowns
210
Q

determinants of agri: technological factors: seeds?

A
211
Q

determinants of agri: Infrastructural factors: irrigation: growth?

A
  • Net irrigated area: 21MHa(1950-51) to 68MHa (2013-14)
  • ultimate irriation potential=139MHa

Indian Geography (13 decks)

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