India - 2.1 Flashcards
1
Q
partition of Bengal
A
- large and unruly area to manage
- in 1905 Viceroy Cruzon partitioned the province along religious lines and Muslims controlling the East and Hindus the West
- led to violent protects (Swadash campaigns)
- set a precedent for a future lack of consolidation and how the British were shown to favour Hindus
- however, British were able to resort order without too much trouble
2
Q
strengths of the British Raj
A
- technically, Indians had the power to rise up to the ICS, playing a role in governance
- by 1919 examinations for the ICS were herd in Dehli and Rangoon making it more accessible
- Muslims opposed the Hindu drive for autonomy as they would end up outvoted and this ensured the system had backing
- kept Indians in a subordinate position, limiting uprisings
3
Q
British positions in the Raj
A
- system implemented form the top-down
- viceroy was appointed in Westminster but resided in India (salary twice that of the British prime minister)
- secretary of state was answerable to parliament and decided and developed the policies implemented in India
4
Q
Indian Civil service
A
- ensured regulations were implemented in India
- renowned for its efficiency and was a model for administrators throughout the British Empire.
- Indians had to pass exams in London and higher education at a British university
- wasn’t until 1919 that examinations were held in Rangoon and Delhi
5
Q
weaknesses of the British Raj
A
-those with the most power resided in London, leaving them disconnected from the actual situation in India
several months travel time)
-English experience was out of date and inappropriate
-the ICS required education and training in London, making it practically impossible for them to get involved
-Princely states were dealt with inconsistently, making a united relationship difficult
-Viceroys often changed leading to irregular leadership
-established a clear divide between ethnicities, creating anger and a lack of trust
6
Q
Indian population and geography
A
- the population of India in 1914 was 350million (150,000 British), speaking 200 languages
- the land was equal in size to Europe and so uniting and controlling the country was difficult
- the most significant area was the Punjab. This had been the base of most rulers of India in history
7
Q
society and religion
A
India’s population in 1914 were of 4 main religious groups (Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs and Christians)
- Hindus made up 80% of the population. they followed the caste system underpin day purity and pollution. every hindu was born into a caste and lived out their life in that caste (pre-determined)
- Muslims lived mostly in the north west and north east. many had converted to Islam places great emphasis on equality
- sikhism (fusion of hinduism and islam), by 1914 majority in the Punjab were Sikhs.
8
Q
East India Company
A
- began in 1600 by Elizabeth 1
- the aim of the company was to create a monopoly over the spice trade and destroy dutch and French interests
- started setting u p its own substantial army and establishing bases in India (e.g. in Calcutta)
- initially claimed no political powers of objectives
- displayed a paternalistic attitude towards the Indian people and rapidly expanded its power and influence, somewhat aggressively (e.g. land with no heir was taken by the British, sepoys deployed outside the home region which was seen as disrespectful)
- rumours that ammunition cartridges issued by the British for the sepoys were greased with animal fat. this resulted in the Indian mutiny of 1857 where 400 were massacred. (had to bite top of ammunition to load but Hindus were vegetarian)
9
Q
divide and rule
A
- Indian princes ruled around 35% of the country, consisting of 565 princely states
- each of these states had its own laws, languages and holidays, ministers and rulers
- after the Mutiny British didn’t want to use violence so used this system whereby one aristocrat was pitched against another and loyalties purchased.
- Princely states were forced to acknowledge Britain as the paramount power.
10
Q
Indian National congress
A
- delegates at the first meeting of the Indian National Congress in 1885 were mainly high caste Hindus, all of whom spoke English.
- some British delegates
- three years later, 83/600 Muslims were (dominated by Hindus)
- met every year until the outbreak of WW1
- at this point it was a discussion forum not a political party. The early resolutions of congress were framed within a spirit of cooperation with the Raj, suggesting some form of power sharing
11
Q
Bal Tilak
A
- first popular leader of Indian independence movement
- founded Kesari newspaper which strongly criticised the Raj, esp after partition of Bengal
- joined Indian National Congress in 1890s and criticised moderate approach of Gokhale
- led more extremist branch of congress
- imprisoned in 1914
- criticised Gandhi’s non-violent approach
12
Q
the Muslim League
A
- formed in Dhaka in 1906
- voice of Muslim community (nearly a minority in every state)
- as long as the elite ruled for the people not by the people this didn’t matter too much. however, raj became more democratic
- Hindus may outvote the Muslim and therefore strongly opposed democracy
- created a dichotomy between Hindus and Muslims and heightened religious differences
13
Q
The Indian Councils Act 1909
A
- 60 Indian representatives were to be elected to serve on the Viceroy’s Executive Council
- enlarged provincial councils to create non-official majorities
- Separate electorates were provided for Muslims and Hindus
- Morley appointed two Indians to his London based group of advisors. thought of a significant step towards self-governance
- Minto did a similar thing (appointing Sinha, advocate-general of Bengal)
- showed officials were in agreement but for different reasons
14
Q
India’s response to WW1 fighting
A
- support was given from congress, the muslim league and the princely states (27 but their army at the disposal of the British)
- Bal Tilak declared his loyalty
- Ghandi urged people to show support to show their desire to share in the responsibilities of the British empire
- by November 1918, over 800,000 Indians had enlisted as combatants
- 64,500 died
15
Q
attitudes to WW1 fighting
A
- going to war was an ancestral tradition of obligation to their emperor
- few claimed to be fighting for India, most cited the King or empire
16
Q
Indian military contribution to WW1
A
- the First Indian expeditionary Force, made up of 28,500 Indian troops embarked from Karachi in 1914
- heavy losses in the Battle of Ypres
- provided half the allied fighting force at Neuve Chapelle
- in December 2015, two infinity devisions were withdrawn from France and sent to serve in the Middle East (low morale and might not be able to survive another winter)
- they were better suited to the climate and it would be easier to send reinforcements from India
17
Q
WW1 indian troops against the Turks
A
- took part in a campaign against the Ottoman Turks in Iraq
- badly led and ill-equipped as Indian production wasn’t established in making weapons or vehicles and was too expensive to divert supplies from Europe.
- eventually surrendered to the Turks in April 1916
- many were sent to prisoner of war camps and many died
- two Indian cavalry division remained here until 1918, transferred to Palestine in operations against the Turks
18
Q
WW1 economic contributions
A
- by the end of the war, Indian revenues had contributed over £146 million to the war effort (half in loans)
- military expenditure had risen dramatically too with revenue demands in India rising by 16% in the years 1916-17
19
Q
negative economic impacts of WW1
A
- effects were felt through increased taxation, shortages of fuel and rising prices
- prices of food grains rose by 93% and this was exacerbated by the failure of the monsoon rains to arrive in 1918-19
- provincial food riots and some expressed concern that support for the Raj was crumbling.
- however, these were sporadic and never coalesced into a general campaign. if it had it would have been very difficult to quell due to a soldier deficit in India
- by 1915 not a single British Battalion left in India
20
Q
positive economic impacts of WW1
A
- Indian manufacturing industries (e.g. cotton, iron and steel) expanded in order to replace goods normally imported
- shareholders saw their dividends rocket (Bombay cloth mill dividends went from 6% in 1940 to 30% in 1917)
21
Q
Montagu declaration
A
- 20th August 1917
- Edwin Montagu (secretary of state)
- implicitly committed the British government to granting some form of self-governance to India
- Montagu visited India and criticised those who wanted more British participation in government
- he was particularly critical of Micheal O’Dwyer, governor of the Punjab who was adamantly opposed to any more Indian participation in government
- however, no timescale was given for the declaration
- he also doesn’t specify what he is going to do, remains very vague.
22
Q
the Rowlett commission
A
- in 1917 Rowlett was appointed head of a commission to investigate revolutionary conspiracies
- 1918- their report isolated Bombay, Bengal and the Punjab as centres of revolutionary activity and that the old war time control should be extended to bring order
- included imprisonment without trial, trial by judges sitting without a jury, censorship and house arrest
23
Q
Rowlatt Acts
A
- sanctioned by Montagu with extreme reluctance but made it clear that he found it very offensive
- viceroy Chelmsford granted it and became law in March 1919 even thought all 22 Indian members of the Indian legislative Council opposed the measure
- Muhammad Ali Jinnah resigned from the council saying the raj wasn’t responsible or in sought with Indian public opinion
- act repealed in 1922
- made the raj seem duplicitous suggesting self governance but then acting with repression
24
Q
opposition to the rowlatt acts
A
- worst in the Punjab
- Hartals were organised, resulting in an impressive display of Hindu-Muslim solidarity
- anti-raj protests were triggered when two key organisers were arrested
- banks were stormed and three europeans killed
- in April, over 100 terrified and exhausted European women had taken refuge in Gobindgarh Fort, trying to find a place of safety.
25
The Amritser Massacre
- Michael O'Dwyer became convinced of a planned uprising to overthrow the Raj
- Dyer led a force of 1000 soldiers into Amritser in April 12th
- following day was start of Baisakhi Day (important religious festival in the Punjab)
- thousands flocked to Amritsar to worship at the golden Temple (thousands more came for horse and cattle fairs that were traditionally part of the festival)
- called for the repeal of the Rowlatt acts and expressing sympathy for the dead in the previous days riots
26
dyers response to the Amritsar massacre
- Dyer ordered proclamations to be read against the holding of meetings and assemblies
- fired 1650 shots killing 400 and founding 1500 more
- General William Benyon approved of his decisions
27
long term effects of the Amritsar massacre
- Dyer set about establishing martial law designed to humiliate Indians living there.
- any European who passed had to salaam
- crawling order which said that any Indian who wished to pass along the street where Marcia Sherwood had been assaulted had to crawl on all fours in the dirt
- this was particularly offensive to Hindus as their caste system was based on purity
28
Amritsar massacre impact in Britain
- divided public opinion
- some saw Dyer as courageous others felt he destroyed all possibility of Indian nationalists and the Raj working together
- debates ended in support for Dyer
- Montagu set up an enquiry in search of proof (Lord Hunter arrived in november and ask questions and listen to evidence)
- dyer was tried who said he would have gone further and used machine guns
- Hunter commission's Report conduced that they could find no evidence of a conspiracy to overthrow the Raj
- Dyer was forced to reign, O'Dwyer only gently reprimanded
- a deputation from Ladies of the Punjab expressed their gratitude for what he had done
29
impact of the Amritsar massacre in India
- the Punjab sub-committee of the Indian National Congress set up its own inquiry
- examined 1700 witnesses
- their final reports contained graphic photos and acted as an indictment to the way in which India was governed
30
the Montagu Chelmsford Report and the Government of India Act
- 1919
- created a dyarchy, albeit an unequal one, between Indians and British
- viceroy now advised by a council of six civilians, three of whom had to be Indians
- Viceroy could enforce laws even if the legislative councils rejected them
- provincial councils were given control over Indian services like education, however the British retained control of military matters foreign affairs, currency and criminal law
- franchise extended, still linked to tax payments, (10% if adult male pop now)
- provincial assemblies could enfranchise women if they wished (number of voted less than 1% of adult female pop)
- reserved seats for all religious groups and special interest groups like Sikhs
31
intention of government of India act
- shift more decision making more from the centre to the provinces
- Montagu saw this as a step towards self-governance
- RWPs thought gov was losing control, LWPs thought it hadn't gone far enough
- ICS though their influence was slipping away
32
which individuals changed the Indian national congress
- congress had been an organisation for the wealthy and therefore were conflicts between extremists (Tilak) and respectful nature of Gokhake
- in SA Gandhi had experience working with a range of Castes and religions, learned to cooperate with people in positions of authority and experimented with a range of protest techniques
33
sayagraha
word made up by Gandhi meaning 'truth and obstinacy' which suggested non-cooperation as a means of working against the British gov
34
examples of satyagraha
- peasant farmers in Champaran were forced by white planters to grow indigo on disadvantageous terms
- refusal to leave the Bihar district
- fasted until the situation was resolved
- boycotted British salt so went on a 200mile march to get his own sea salt
- this appealed to the working class and therefor encouraged more people to take action (simple and less dangerous methods)
- thought an impressive performance, any positive outcome at this point was probably due to other political re-alignments
35
Gandhi working with new people
- during the war
- developed relationships with Prasad, Patel and Nehru (awareness of those who would be useful in future struggles)
- worked on developing connections Muslims and businessmen. these had been neglected by congress previously
- this paid off as the muslims supported his take over of congress in 1920 and businessmen by bank-rolling his non-cooperation campaign
36
Lucknow pact
- December 1915 meeting, both committed themselves to following the same political objectives
- 1916 Pact agreed that the number of muslims in a provincial legislature should be laud done one by one
- separate electorates for all communities unless their requested a joint one
- this promise form the Hindus was similar to the promises given by the British gov earlier
37
why did muslim league and congress agree over the knotty problem?
- the Muslim League believed that the annulment of the partition of Bengal implied that the British were no longer sympathetic to separator electorates and so their aims changed
- the declaration of war against Turkey in November 1914 caused resentment among those Muslims who regarded the Sultan of turkey as their Caliph - their most important spiritual leader
- Jinnah, worked to bring rapprochement between the two organisation
- ironic however, that Jinnah himself (secular) didn't like the idea of operate electorates as it gave muslims an enhanced sense os islamic identity
38
effects of Lucknow pact
- congress strengthened as larger membership and healed rifts in current membership
- death of moderates like gokhale enabled congress to become more extremes to re-enter congress
- one of the first resolutions passed by newly united congress was a British proclamation aiming to confer self governance
39
drawbacks of Lucknow Pact
- just an agreement between Congress and the League (no power to impose it)
- Jinnah's statement that cooperation should be their guiding principle cemented the alliance between the two organisations and signal to the British that the Indian nationalist movement was gaining strength
40
Home rule Leagues
- launched in 1916 and brought the concept of home rule to the masses who were otherwise uninterested
- Bal Tilak's Home Rule League operated in western India gaining 32,000 members
- All-India Home Rule League started by Annie Besant grew more slowly but network soon covered all India
41
what was home rule?
- defence and foreign policy would remain the responsibility of Britain
- Indian control of domestic affairs
- gave lectures, newspapers, rallies, songs to generate interest
- attracted members of Congress and the Muslim league
- hundred of thousands of Indians signed petitions that was presented to the British
- they spread political awareness in previous unpoliticised provinces (more attractive alternative to rural India)
42
response to home rule league
- Tilak was arrested for sedition and required to put up 40,000 rupees as surety of good behaviour
- Besant was interned in Hune 1917
- however, this meant that both the Muslim League and congress swung behind home rule
43
Annie Besant
- English social reformer
- decided India was her true home and settled there
- president of congress in 1918
- gradually lost support and eclipsed by campaigns of Gandhi
44
reaction to the Government of India Act 1919
- Hindus didn't like the idea of reserved seats believing them to be anti-democratic and inappropriate
- many reflected on the four years between the Montagu declaration suggesting it showed reluctance on behalf of the British
- Rowlatt act embodied British repression
- Congress rejected the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms and boycotted the first elections held under the 1919 act.
45
significance of Amritsar Massacre
- satyagraha used against the Rowlatt Act
- Gandhi's idea was to hold a number of hartals to break the impasse between politicians
- they erupted in violence in areas like the Punjab
- Gandhi called a stop to Rowlatt Satyagraha but violence continued showing that it would only word is everyone understood its basic tenets and didn't use it as a pretext to follow other agendas
46
partition of Bengal extras
- Hindus opposed as it created a province dominated by Muslims
- Muslims supported as it freed them from Hindu control (in one of the two provinces)
- Bengali terrorist movement carried out a number of violent attacks
- Curzon had started a national protect movement and direct confrontation
- set a president for partition being a solution the British were ready to try and that they would favour Hindu ideals.
