impact of empire 1688-c1730 Flashcards
what is plantations
settlements of protestant people from England
What is the lord deputy
the governor of Ireland, appointed by the monarch
who were the Jacobites
supporters of James II
who were the Williamites
supporters of King Williams
who were the ascendary
wealthy protestants
-English born but thought they were the only true Irish nation
- whole system favoured them
why were there plantations
people were being planted in Ireland to colonise it. Vast area of land were confiscated from catholics
what did MP John Davis say about the protestants and catholics
he called protestants good corn and catholics like weed to be removed
how did English control the irish
Irish were forced to live outside the walls - t
how did English control the irish
Irish were forced to live outside the walls -
when was the reformation
1534
what did the earl fo tyrconnel do (with the instruction of James)
he built catholic membership of the army on Ireland
who was the Irish parliament mainly dominated by
protestants
when did James arrive in Ireland
1689
what happed when James arrived in Ireland in 1689
- he held a parliament in Dublin which passed a law which confiscated land back to the former catholic owners
-it also declared that the English parliament had no right to make laws governing Ireland
what were the three options of the treaty of Limerick to the jacobites
- join Williams army
- return home
- continue following James army and leave the country forever
what happened to the catholic landowners who did not swear their oath
their lands got taken away
what was the impact on Ireland of British control after 1691
- catholics lost their land, religious freedom, political power
- Irish parliament was completely protestant until 1828
- penal laws
what were the penal laws
laws that suppressed the status of catholics in Ireland
what was the 1695 penal law
not allowed to carry arms
what was the 1704 penal laws
not allowed to inherit property
what was 1728 penal laws
not allowed to vote
who had the real power in Ireland
the english based at Dublin castle - all the staff appointed by the London govt
what relationship described Ireland to England (from Englands POV)
child to parent
(the ascendancy saw it as brother and sister)
who were the Campbell clan
powerful clan which was close to William
what did James II want
an absolute monarchy (wanted to control trade and business)
who did James II appoint to be the Lord Deputy of Ireland
the Earl of Tyrconnel
what religion was the Earl of Tyrconnel
catholic
who did the English parliament invite to take over the thrown
William of orange and his wife (James II’s daughter) Mary
when was William and Mary coronated as joint monarchs
April 1689
what did James do when William and Mary arrived in England
he fled to france
how did the siege of Londonderry happen 1689
after fleeing to France, James was given French troops from Louis XIV to win back the three kingdoms.
James with French troops, met the earl of Tyrconnel with an army of Jacobites to siege Londonderry (no protestants allowed in or out)
what did William do about the siege of Londonderry
he sent his troops to fight the Jacobites, broke the siege and freed the protestants (however over a third of his troop died camping in Belfast from bad and damp conditions)
what happened at the Battle of Boyne 1690
Williamites and Jacobites fought it out, no clear winner however James and his army retreated therefore William won
what happened at the Battle of Aughrim 1691
the two sides met again but this time William clearly won, Jacobites finally lost
7,000 were killed on both sides
why was the Treaty of Limerick signed 1691?
to ensure no more war
what was the relationship between the Protestant Ascendancy and the poorer Protestants and Catholics
the Ascendancy became very rich and powerful and there were divisions between them and poor Protestants. Poor Protestants resented the way the British government treated them as a colonised, second-class people
there was also division in faith
what did England do to show that it was a parent and Ireland was the child
impose certain laws (English Woollen Act and Declaratory Act)
what was the 1699 English Woollen Act
made it illegal fro the Irish to export woollen cloth beyond the British Isles (to protect English exports)
1720 Declaratory Act
British parliament had the right to make laws for Ireland ‘in all cases whatsoever’
what right was given from the British Parliament to an English Entrepreneur in 1722-1725
British government gave the right to manufacture Irish halfpennies to an English entrepreneur (William wood) against the will of Irish protestants
why did many highlanders in Scotland support the Jacobites
- belief that James was the rightful king of Scotland according to ancient traditions
- hatred and fear of lowlanders
- conditions of poverty and frequent hunger
when was the union of crowns
1603
what was the union of crowns
Scotland and England run by one king (James II) but had two separate parliaments
reasons for Scots to support James
- he was a Stuart from the ancient Scottish royal family
- Scotland had not been consulted by members of Parliament about the invitation of William of orange
reasons for Scots to support William
- he was a protestant like most Scots & James’s attempts to increase rights for catholics were unpopular
- he was ruling jointly with Mary who was James’s daughter and thus a Stuart from the royal family
what was the Claim of Right 1689
Scottish parliament backed William and blamed James for the troubles and no catholic could become king again
what happened at the battle of Killiecrankie 1689
Jacobites fought government troupes outraged that James was blamed and no Catholic could become king again
Jacobites won but their leader and 1/3 or their army died
what happened at the battle of Dunkeld 1689
jacobite rebellion collapsed
why did William create Fort William in the highlands
to prevent a repeat of the rebellions so he organised military occupation
when did clans who supported James have to swear their allegiance by
1st January 1692
what is the Massacre of Glencoe
what is the Massacre of Glencoe
leader of the McDonalds clan was one day late in swearing his allegiance to William, the king wanted to make an example of this so therefore massacred the clan - it was a murder by trust
(38 women, men and children belonging to the clan were killed)
why did Scotland face economic ruin
- they were dragged into foreign wars
- harvests failed
- many people lived in extreme poverty due to the unequal relationship with england
What was the Navigation Act?
prevented Scottish ships from being involved in trade with England and the colonies overseas (held Scottish economy back)
what policies held the Scottish economy back
- the EIC and the RAC were granted monopoly of trade with India and Africa and Scottish companies had no access to this trade
- Englands involvement in foreign wars meant trade with much of Europe was often cut off
What was the Darien Scheme?
1695 banker William Patterson suggested the formation of a Scottish colony in Central America
the idea was that this settlement could control the trade between North and South America
who backed the Darien scheme
Scottish nobles, the Bank of Scotland, English merchants and bankers
they invested £400,000
what happened a month after the failure of the Darien Scheme
another expedition left Scotland for panama, they tried to rebuild the colony making the same mistakes as they did with the first expedition with disputes about how the settlement should be organised
in 1700 they managed to defeat a Spanish force which provoked the Spanish to attack a month later. after a month’s siege, the Scottish settlers surrendered to the Spanish and were allowed to leave
Why did the Darien Scheme fail?
poor supplies
- inappropriate farming skills for the climate
- hot, humid and swampy climate
- there was opposition from William and the EIC (as it saw the scheme as a threat to its profits) and there was withdrawal from English directors
- indigenous people had no interest in having an alliance with settlers
1699 200 people had died including Patterson’s wife and child
300 of the remaining residents abandoned the settlements
What was the Act of Settlement 1701
the English crown would pass to the Protestant House of Hanover in Germany
what Act did the Scottish pass in response to the Act of Settlement
the Act of Security
- asserted Scotland could independently decide who should be the next monarch
what laws did Scotland pass in 1703
- law saying Scotland was allowed to trade wool with countries at war with England
- Act Anent War & Peace (saying only Scottish parliament could declare war, not the monarch)
what Act did England pass in 1705 in retaliation to the 1703 laws passed by Scotland
the English Aliens Act 1705
- banned imports from Scotland to England (this was if they didn’t accept the German as the next monarch)
why did the English want a union with Scotland
to end the threat of war with Scotland at a time when England was facing the possibility of a French invasion
they also wanted to end the risk of a Jacobite such as the ‘Old Pretender’ taking the Scottish throne
Scottish arguments for union with england
- greater security and protection from enemies
- free trade and improved economy
- england promised to write off debt from the Darien scheme
- English troops moved northwards so Scots began to fear invasion if they didn’t agree
Scottish arguments against union with england
- increased taxation
- loss of Scottish identity and independence and domination by England
- rule by foreigners
- most Scottish people were against it
tactics by English politicians to ensure a union with Scotland
they agreed to greater trade freedom
- promised to write of debt from Darien scheme
- Scottish institutions such as the church and legal system would not be changed
- Scottish politicians were also bribed with large sums of money
- English troops moved northwards and the scots feared an invasion if they did not agree
When was the Act of Union?
1707
- england and scotland became one country with 1 monarch and 1 parliament (end of the Scottish parliament)
when was the treaty of Utrecht
1713
what was the treaty of Utrecht
established Britain as the major slave-trading nation and the asiento was brought about (Spain made agreements with others to provide slaves)
Britain provides slaves for Spain in return for gold and silver bullion
effects of the collapse of the south sea company
businesses collapsed and some people killed themselves
other companies linked to the south sea company failed
parliament passed the 1720 ‘Bubble Act’ - from now on any new company needed to be granted a royal charter
how did London benefit from the enslavement system
the wealth made from the enslavement system helped to finance the state apartments in Windsor castle.
Thomas Guy, the founder of Guy’s Hospital, owned many shares in the South Sea Company which made him very rich.
the British museum was founded by Hans Sloane who profited also from the slave trade
when was the English woollen act
1699
what was the 1699 English woollen act
made it illegal fro the Irish to export woollen cloth beyond the British Isles (to protect English exports)
when was the declaratory act
1720
what was the 1720 declaratory act
British parliament had the right to make laws for Ireland ‘in all cases whatsoever’ and Irish House of Lords no longer had the right to be the final court of appeal
what right was given from the British Parliament to an English Entrepreneur in 1722-1725
British government gave the right to manufacture Irish halfpennies to an English entrepreneur (William wood) against the will of Irish protestants
why did many highlanders in Scotland support the Jacobites
- belief that James was the rightful king of Scotland according to ancient traditions
- hatred and fear of lowlanders
- conditions of poverty and frequent hunger
reasons for Scots to support James
- he was a Stuart from the ancient Scottish royal family
- Scotland had not been consulted by members of Parliament about the invitation of William of orange
reasons for Scots to support William
- he was a protestant like most Scots & James’s attempts to increase rights for catholics were unpopular
- he was ruling jointly with Mary who was James’s daughter and thus a Stuart from the royal family
when was the claim of right
1689
what was the claim of right 1689
Scottish parliament backed William and blamed James for the troubles and no catholic could become king again
when was the battle of Killiecrankie
1689
when was the battle of Dunkeld
1689
why did William create Fort William in the highlands
to prevent a repeat of the rebellions so he organised military occupation
what act did England pass in 1705
the English aliens act 1705
what were the English aliens act 1705 rules
banned imports from Scotland to England
why did the English want a union with Scotland
to end the threat of war with Scotland at a time when England was facing the possibility of a French invasion
they also wanted to end the risk of a Jacobite such as the ‘Old Pretender’ taking the Scottish throne
Scottish arguments for union with england
- greater security and protection from enemies
- free trade and improved economy
- england promised to write off debt from the Darien scheme
- English troops moved northwards so Scots began to fear invasion if they didn’t agree
Scottish arguments against union with england
- increased taxation
- loss of Scottish identity and independence and domination by England
- rule by foreigners
- most Scottish people were against it
tactics by English politicians to ensure a union with Scotland
- they agreed to greater trade freedom
- promised to write of debt from Darien scheme
- Scottish institutions such as the church and legal system would not be changed
- Scottish politicians were also bribed with large sums of money
- English troops moved northwards and the scots feared an invasion if they did not agree
When was the Act of Union?
1707
what was the 1707 act of union about
England and Scotland became one country with 1 monarch and 1 parliament
what happened at the 1715 rebellion
- the old pretender tried to become king
- earl of mar organised uprising of Jacobites and promise that Scottish parliament would be restored
- supported by most Highlanders and some Lowlanders
- it failed at an inconclusive battle at Sheriffmuir and James Edward (the Old Pretender) was forced to leave to France with the earl of mar in 1716
positive impacts on Scotland from the Act of Union
- protection from enemy nations
- creation of infrastructure through the highlands
- career opportunities for leading Scottish politicians
- job opportunities for Scots in the British empire
- higher standard of living
- money back + interest from Darien scheme
negative impacts on Scotland from the Act of Union
- england had an occupying army in Scotland
- the government was more distant from the lives of ordinary people in Scotland
- higher taxation
- Scottish industries closed down as they couldn’t compete with English ones
- way of life in the highlands was destroyed
Who emigrated from Britain
- people who were banished
- Convicts
- volunteer indentured servants
- ulster scots
- many joined the army or working overseas in trading and enslaving companies (adventurers)
why banished people emigrated
after 1715 Jacobite uprising 1,259 scots were put on trial in London, many of them were persuaded to ‘petition for transportation’ (shipped to the Americas to live out their sentences as labourers) to avoid execution
the first shipload took 638 people, most were sold as field workers, some were used as soldiers to fight the Native American Yammasee people. few were bought and set free by people sympathetic to their cause
why convicts emigrated
the 1718 Transportation Act allowed the shipment of convicted criminals across the Atlantic to ease overcrowded prisons
more than 50,000 men, women and children were transported on convict ships
it was used to get rid of people who were undesirable such as political enemies and people such as gypsies, prostitutes and Scottish highlanders were forced to emigrate
they would serve seven years on mainly tobacco plantations and then they were freed
when was the transportation act and what did it do
1718 + allowed the shipment of convicted criminals across the Atlantic to ease overcrowded prisons
why volunteer indentured servants emigrated
many volunteered to travel as indentured servants to potentially get a better life in America
in Ireland and Scotland in the 1690s they were driven by harvest failures and famine
in England and Scotland they were victims of land enclosures and could no longer work in the countryside
many Irish families had been forced off their land by ulster plantations
many died before gaining freedom and some joined militias to protect settlement communities and some become politically active
why scots emigrated to Ulster
many scots emigrated to Ireland, taking advantage of its better weather and soil for cultivation
after the Treaty of Limerick 1691 , Scottish protestants were given attractive offers by the English government to settle in Ulster in land that the Irish had been forced to leave
why did people who joined the army or working overseas in trading and enslaving companies emigrate
Scottish merchant adventurers roamed Asia and the Caribbean looking for opportunities to trade
large numbers of scots served as mercenary soldiers in European wars
after the act of union, increasing numbers of scots served as administrators for the EIC
between 1720 and 1757, all the principal medical officers in Madras were Scottish
what law supressed piracy
1722 Act for the Suppression of Piracy
What goods were transported in the triangular trade and to where
England transported weapons, guns and gunpowder to Africa in return for slaves (cape coast castle).
Goods like spices and ivory were transported back to america. The slaves were then transported to the Americas to plantations.
From America tobacco, sugar and whale oil were transported back to England
what system were africans enslaved under
chattel enslavement
- the slave was seen as a property that could be bought and sold
Who was the RAC set up by and why?
Set up by the Stuart royal family and friends for their personal gain in 1660
The royal charter that set up the company gave it a monopoly of English trade with Africa - meaning no other companies could get involved
When did the RAC lose its monopoly?
1698 - other businesses and companies got involved (parliament thought business would boom if more people were involved)
Why was there a rise in job opportunities around the triangular trade (after the RAC lost its monopoly)
Trading centres on the coast of Africa provided jobs and there was also employment for ship-builders and also for those who created the goods like guns
As more people wanted sugar, tobacco and other goods from the Americas so the demand of labour grew
What were the challenges to the trade and its profits
- resistance in Africa- some African rulers opposed human trafficking and even fought against it (eg Agaja, the king of Dahomey attacked and destroyed European forts)
- uprising on slave ships- eg 1729 on the Clare captives rose up against the crew, forced them off the ship and managed to reach safety of land near Cape Coast Castle
- piracy- many British run ships were poorly run and the conditions on pirate ships were democratically run offering more freedom to crew members
What were the plantations in America
tobacco in Virginia
Sugar cane in Barbados
Setting up the sugar plantations needed manpower and organisation, creating more jobs
advantages of employing White workers
- they spoke the same language as their masters
- they were half the price of enslaved Africans
- they were more hardworking due to their hopes of a better future after their period of indenture
in 1638 Barbados had 2,000 indentured and only 200 slaves
advantages of enslaved african workers
- coped better with climate
- cheaper to clothe and maintain
- skin colour made them easy to identify if they ran away
- more resourceful and productive
Disadvantages of European indentured servants
- high death rate
- temporary workers
- grew to be expensive as wages rose in England
- unable to work in climate and their agricultural skills were inappropriate to the environment
what were plantocracies
societies controlled by the planters, backed by military force and the law
Why plantocracies had support from the government
- large profits for businesses which could then be reinvested into larger projects
- access to raw materials: large quantities of valuable crops for sale in Britain and overseas
- work opportunities
- economic and strategic advantage over other European powers
- military expansion
Slave system was not an economic success
- as they weren’t paid, enslaved africans were not motivated to work hard
- planters could not hire and fire employees
- enslaved Africans regularly rebelled, ran away or sabotaged business
- hard to manage, profits not huge, investors pulled out
Plantations were successful
efficient, effective, modern businesses
- profitable
- overall gross profits higher than costs of buying slaves
- plantation system was first example of a highly organised mass workforce on a production line- paved the way for industrial age
why were White indentured servants kept apart from the enslaved Africans
as planters feared they would work together to form an uprising
example of successful uprising
the Jamaican Maroons used guerrilla tactics against the British
in 1739, the British govt signed a peace treaty with them to end the First Maroon War
what are the British profits from the trade in enslaved Africans
- merchants profited from increased sales of sugar and tobacco
- richer people had more spending power
- slave traders profited from increased demand for enslaved Africans
- shipping companies profited from increased shipment of sugar and tobacco
- plantation owners profited from increased sugar production
who set up the EIC and why?
it was formed in 1600 by Queen Elizabeth I
it was formed in order to carry out trade with South and Southeast Asia - the aim was to rival the Portuguese who controlled the trade at the time
what type of company was the EIC and what could it do which made it powerful
it was a joint stock company (entirely private business)
- it could wage war
- it had a monopoly of trade in south and southeast Asia
- it had its own army and navy (it fought the Dutch and the Portuguese to take over trade in parts of India)
- it had its own justice system
- it could mint its own money
by 1688 it had 3 factories in India
what were the EIC’s relations with india
Britain wanted spice, tea and textiles from India so England traded the gold and silver bullion they got from the Spanish from the asiento
the EIC was also trying to negotiate a firman with Aurangzeb (special trading rights) but Josiah Child interfered and the emperor broke off all talks - Child then sent out armed forces starting ‘Child’s War’
the EIC was defeated by the war and were left with one trading post by 1690 in Bengal
who wanted to end the monopoly of the EIC
- private businesses in Britain
- weavers in Britain
- parliament (due to the corruption)
what went badly for the EIC (1688 - 1702)
- parliament ended the EIC’s monopoly as they set up an inquiry which revealed deep corruption in the company.
the govt set up a new trading company which traded with south and southeast Asia (it was set up after king William renewed the EIC’s monopoly)
- imports of Indian textiles were banned in 1700 as weavers marched against the EIC in protest against the import of Indian cloth
- the EIC was given 3 years to close itself down
what went well for the EIC (1702 - 1730)
- the EIC directors invest in the new company and they decide to merge in 1702 once more with a monopoly
- as the demand for luxury products in England grew, the share price of the company and profits increased
- the EIC offered employment opportunities for British men to come as administrators
- as the company expanded across Asia it employed a large number of seamen (1/4 of which were lascars)
- some British men who became very rich were known as nabobs
- by the end of the century, the EIC ruled India and controlled half the world’s trade
how did the opium trade benefit Britain
the EIC grew poppies in north-eastern India and exported the opium to china which created widespread drug addiction
he company was profiting from opium addiction in the east and tea addiction in west
how did Britain’s control of india change?
after Aurangzeb died in 1707, wars between noble and peasant uprisings all over India weakened the Mughal rule and the central Mughal army became weaker
the EIC took advantage of this and in 1717the Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar granted a firman to the company that it could trade, duty free, all over the empire for a small annual payment
how did people accumulate a vast new wealth
- creating the national debt
- setting up a new banking system
- taxation
- controlling the trade of a colonial empire through a monopoly
the accumulation of wealth led to the new economic system of capitalism becoming firmly established
when was the bank of England set up
1694
why was the bank of England set up
to lend money to king William at a rate of interest to finance his wars
- financiers established the Bank of England
what was also established alongside the bank of england
the national debt
- a loan owed by the govt and paid for by the taxpayers
What did the Bank of England do?
it introduced a system of credit which enabled business projects to grow and it made it possible for the royal navy to be rebuilt
the combination of capital investment and military force protecting and expanding the colonies increased Britain’s wealth
what did the increase of britain’s wealth help to do
it helped to start the Industrial Revolution.
the economic advancements saw power shifting from the monarch towards the owners of wealth and their representatives in parliament
what were the risks of the british economy booming
the threat of war between European powers made journeys dangerous for merchant ships
the joint stock system (businesses owned by shareholders) always carried the danger that companies could collapse
- eg the fall of the South Sea Company in 1720
when was the south sea company formed
1711
after the treaty of Utrecht in 1713, it was given the right to asiento - selling slaves to the Spanish colonies in America (it was a joint stock company)
why people wanted to buy shares in the south sea company
the govt approved the company’s scheme to minimise and manage the national debt partly by issuing new shares in the south sea company
the company also artificially increased the share price to £1000 per share, making it seem very successful
side-effects of the rise of the ‘bubble’
thousands of people from different classes invested their savings in the company
there was a lot of corrupt ‘insider’ dealing by people working for the company
how the ‘bubble’ burst
shareholders realised that the share price was too high for the company to support, and so started selling their shares
as people sold their shares, their value decreased, so other shareholders panicked and sold their shares too
as the company did not have the money to pay people back, most shareholders lost all their money and the company collapsed
what was the impact on britain’s economy
boom in trade:
- more people smoking tobacco , drinking rum and eating sugar, creating a growing home market
- the colonies needed good so exports from britain to america, india and africa grew
trade made huge profits:
- owners of slave ships made 20-50% profit
- trade with asia was profitable (1691 the EIC made 50% pay-out to its investors)
new employment opportunities:
- empire provided work for british people of all social classes (administrators for EIC, shipbuilders, ironworkers creating guns to trade on African coast and the chains to shackle the enslaved)
what was the impact on british business
England won wars so plantations were safe to produce goods and the royal navy could protect merchant ships so England made more money so England built better, stronger fighting ships, so England seized more colonies which provided ore business opportunities and so on
who benefitted from the enslavement system
all social classes
as it provided work for people in a range of occupations such as:
chains in the Midlands
tools made in Wales
guns from Birmingham
which people in jobs benefitted from the enslavement system
tailors
weavers
carpenters
etc
and all those involved in shipbuilding
which ports had been impacted due to the enslavement system
London
Liverpool
Bristol
how did Liverpool benefit from the enslavement system
many streets in the city are named after prominent slave traders from this period - Sir Thomas Street, commemorates Sir Thomas Johnson
he was the city’s mayor in 1695, financed ships taking the enslaved to sugar plantations and was involved in slave -produced tobacco and was responsible for building in Liverpool the world’s first commercial wet dock in 1715
the blue coat hospital founded in 1708 as a charity providing a school for very poor children - money came from Bryan Blundell, a merchant and sea captain who had transported some of the enslaved from Caribbean sugar plantations to tobacco plantations in Virginia. he also invested in several slave-trading ships, and some of the money he made from this went into the Blue Coat project
how did Bristol benefit from the enslavement system
it had many ‘sugar houses’ where sugar was refined, made into ‘sugar loaves’ and stored before going out to shops
between 1700 and 1718 the houses in Queen Square were built for some of the city’s wealthiest slave traders
how did the empire affect the British political world - coffee
coffee brought from Arabia by the merchant ships of the East India Company was transforming social and political life.
coffee houses were where people came to socialise, do business and freely exchange ideas. topics such as the RAC monopoly were topic of discussion
London had more coffee houses than any other city in the world except Istanbul
The Bank of England began life at Edward Lloyd’s coffee house on Tower Street - many major institutions started in coffee houses
how did the empire affect the British political world - political parties
a two party system developed at a time when only the elite could vote
the two parties were the Whigs and the Tories, each party had its own newspapers (post boy for the tories and flying post for the whigs)
ideas were spread through broadsheets, newspapers and magazines which were read in the coffee houses
how did the empire affect consumerism
consumerism grew with the popularity of goods from Asia and the Americas
commodities such as textiles, teas and ceramics became highly fashionable
- Asian craftspeople adapted their styles to suit western tastes, while western craftspeople copied Asian styles
slave-grown sugar and tobacco from the Americas became widely popular, and as demand grew, supply and competition increased, forcing down prices and making them accessible to more people
how did the empire affect ideas of racial hierarchy in Britain
the system of enslavement and the expansion of the empire were justified by dehumanising enslaved and colonised people
racist ideas that people were superior to people of colour became widespread in Europe
- africans were seen as ‘stateless’ and described as being a lower, less intelligent species
Plantocracy racism claimed there were natural differences between Africans and Europeans
why did plantocracy racism take a hold
those involved needed to justify enslavement
planters wanted to prevent united rebellion by indentured and enslaved people
the idea that black and white people might have a common humanity was a threat to the masters’ power
opposing of enslavement?
at the same time, ideas of individual religious and political liberty for people in Britain began to develop, and few people began to oppose enslavement
in 1709 a pamphlet published in London attacked slavery on moral grounds
how was life for Black people in Britain at the time of the enslavement system?
complex
some lived as free working people while others were brought as enslaved servants and were denied freedom
however, court records show that black people were treated equally under the law
Katherine Auker was treated violently by her former owner and he treated her as his property and even got her arrested, but the law protected her against him
