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A Level Biology > Immunology > Flashcards

Immunology Flashcards

1
Q

What are disease causing microorganisms called

A

pathogens

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2
Q

What is the interaction between pathogens and the bodies defense mechanism called

A

an infection

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3
Q

What is immunity

A

when the body has had an infection before and is more prepared the second time

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4
Q

Name two first physical defenses

A

HCl in stomach and lysozyme in tears

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5
Q

What two defenses does the body have

A

non specific and specific

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6
Q

What is a non specific defense

A

work for all pathogens
acts immediately
barrier or phagocytosis
short lived

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7
Q

What is a specific defense

A

distinguish between pathogens
less rapid but long lasting immunity
involves white blood cells called lymphocytes

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8
Q

What two forms does specific take

A

cell mediated responses involving T lymphocytes

humoral responses involving B lymphocytes

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9
Q

What must the body be able to do

A

recognise difference between foreign chemicals and the body’s own cells

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10
Q

What can this be an issue for

A

transplants

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11
Q

How do we overcome this in transplants

A

by prescribing immunosuppressants

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12
Q

What is apoptosis

A

programmed cell death

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13
Q

Describe the shape of phagocytes

A

large and irregular

always changing shape to allow them to engulf pathogens

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14
Q

How do the chemicals released travel to the phagocyte

A

through diffusion

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15
Q

What are the extensions on a phagocyte called

A

cytoplasmic extensions

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16
Q

What is the pocket that keeps the pathogen called

A

phagosome

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17
Q

What happens after the phagosome is formed

A

lysosomes containing digestive enzymes fuse with it creating a phagolysosome

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18
Q

What do the digestive enzymes do

A

hydrolyses the pathogen and kills it

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19
Q

How is the pathogen then released

A

through exocytosis

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20
Q

What does the phagosome become

A

An antigen presenting cell

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21
Q

How do pathogens make you ill

A

by releasing toxins
killing cells
damaging cells

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22
Q

Define immunity

A

the ability of organisms to resist infections by protecting against disease-causing microoganisms that invade their bodies

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23
Q

Why are specific responses slower

A

they take time to multiply

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24
Q

What does humoral immunity regard

A

bodily fluids

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25
Where do b lymphocytes mature
bone marrow
26
Where do t lymphocytes mature
thymus gland
27
What do b cells work on
bacteria
28
What do t cells work on
viruses and damaged cells
29
What are t cells involved in
cell mediated responses
30
Which responds to foreign material inside cells
T - inside cells | B - outside cells
31
What do damaged cells have
changed antigens
32
What t cell comes first after non specific response
T helper
33
What do t helper cells do
recognise non-self antigens such as antigen presenting cells then divides by mitosis/clonal selection stimulates other white blood cells
34
Which t cell is next
T killer
35
What does the t killer cell do
release chemical called perforin that creates holes in pathogen that leads to lysis
36
Which t cell is next
T memory
37
What does the t memory cell do
remember the pathogen so the second contact leads to a faster, more intense response
38
What are antibodies synthesised by
they are proteins synthesised by B cells
39
How many polypeptide chains are antibodies made up of
4
40
What pairs of chains are there in an antibody
a pair of heavy chains and a pair of light chains
41
What part of the antibody fits the antigen
the binding site
42
What does this produce
an antigen-antibody complex
43
Is the binding site on each antibody the same
no
44
What is the binding site also called
variable region
45
Is the rest of the antibody always the same
yes
46
What are these areas also known as
the constant region
47
What does the hinge region do
its flexible so that the antibody can bind to multiple antigens
48
What are the bridges in the antibody made up of
strong disulfide bridges
49
What is agglutination
when antibodies can cause microbes to stick together as they have two binding sites
50
Why is agglutination helpful
makes it easier for phagocytes to engulf them
51
How do antibodies stop toxins from affecting us
they bind to the toxins and neutralise them
52
How do antibodies stop viruses
they bind to them so its stops them from being able to bind to receptors on cells and inhibiting cell processes
53
Are b cells monoclonal or polyclonal
polyclonal
54
What are the two cells that a b cell clones can develop into
plasma cells | memory cells
55
What are plasma cells and what do they do
they secrete antibodies directly immediate therefore primary immune response short lives (few days) a protein
56
What are memory cells and what do they do
live for decades do not produce antibodies circulate in blood and tissue fluid secondary immune response
57
Explain how b cells work
surface antigens of pathogens taken up by b memory or phagocytes present the antigens T helper attach and activate b cells divide by mitosis to give plasma cells antibodies that are secreted destroy pathogens
58
What is antigenic variability
when antigens have many different strains
59
Monoclonal antibodies are cloned from what
single group of identical B plasma cells
60
Name a biochemical test
pregnancy test
61
Explain the 5 steps in producing monoclonal antibodies
1) inject mouse with antigen to lead to b plasma immune response 2) extract and identify the wanted b cells 3) fuse b plasma with cancer cells and mix with detergent to break lipids in cell membrane 4) grow hybridoma cells 5) extract the antibodies and humanize
62
Give 2 uses on monoclonal antibodies
target cancer cells | combined with anti-cancer drugs (targeted drug therapy)
63
What does attenuated mean
dead
64
What is passive immunity
introduction of antibodies from an outside source | short term
65
What is active immunity
stimulation of antibody production by an individuals own immune system long term
66
Name 3 features of a successful vaccination
economically available few side effects easy to transport
67
Name 3 reasons why a vaccination may not work
some people have defective immune systems people can develop the disease immediately pathogen may mutate frequently
68
Why is it hard to vaccinate for diseases such as cholera
mobile populations spread it so cant concentrate vaccinations in one area antigenic variability
69
Papers claiming things about vaccines must be what three things
peer-reviewed non bias large sample size
70
What does HIV stand for
human immunodeficiency virus
71
What happens in the acute phase
flu like symptoms 3-12 weeks after infection rapid viral multiplication and loss of t helper
72
What is the chronic phase also know as
latent phase
73
How long can the chronic phase last
up to 20 years
74
What does AIDS stand for
acquired immune deficiency virus
75
What is the final stage called
Disease phase
76
What are opportunistic infections
infections normally controlled in healthy people but potentially life threatening in HIV positive people
77
What is the glycoprotein on HIV called
GP120
78
What is GP120 complimentary to
CD4
79
What categorizes HIV as a retro virus
it has reverse transcriptase
80
What does reverse transcriptase do
catalyses the production of DNA and RNA
81
How does HIV replicate
capsid binds to membrane and RNA and enzymes enter the cell RT enzyme makes DNA and injects into hosts dna new viral proteins made
82
What does ELISA stand for
Enzyme linked immunosorbant assay
83
Describe the 6 steps of the ELISA test
1) attach a specific antibody to a well 2) add blood sample - antigen antibody complex will form if infected 3) wash off excess blood 4) second antibody with enzyme attached is added creating an antibody-antigen-antibody-enzyme complex 5) wash off excess 6) add substrate that binds to enzyme and causes colour change
84
Why do we wash off the excess
to remove the chance of false positives
85
How do antibiotics work
inhibit cell wall synthesis and cause lysis by interfering with cross linkages in murein

A Level Biology (11 decks)

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