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A Level Biology > Immunology > Flashcards

Immunology Flashcards

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1
Q

What are disease causing microorganisms called

A

pathogens

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2
Q

What is the interaction between pathogens and the bodies defense mechanism called

A

an infection

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3
Q

What is immunity

A

when the body has had an infection before and is more prepared the second time

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4
Q

Name two first physical defenses

A

HCl in stomach and lysozyme in tears

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5
Q

What two defenses does the body have

A

non specific and specific

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6
Q

What is a non specific defense

A

work for all pathogens
acts immediately
barrier or phagocytosis
short lived

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7
Q

What is a specific defense

A

distinguish between pathogens
less rapid but long lasting immunity
involves white blood cells called lymphocytes

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8
Q

What two forms does specific take

A

cell mediated responses involving T lymphocytes

humoral responses involving B lymphocytes

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9
Q

What must the body be able to do

A

recognise difference between foreign chemicals and the body’s own cells

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10
Q

What can this be an issue for

A

transplants

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11
Q

How do we overcome this in transplants

A

by prescribing immunosuppressants

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12
Q

What is apoptosis

A

programmed cell death

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13
Q

Describe the shape of phagocytes

A

large and irregular

always changing shape to allow them to engulf pathogens

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14
Q

How do the chemicals released travel to the phagocyte

A

through diffusion

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15
Q

What are the extensions on a phagocyte called

A

cytoplasmic extensions

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16
Q

What is the pocket that keeps the pathogen called

A

phagosome

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17
Q

What happens after the phagosome is formed

A

lysosomes containing digestive enzymes fuse with it creating a phagolysosome

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18
Q

What do the digestive enzymes do

A

hydrolyses the pathogen and kills it

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19
Q

How is the pathogen then released

A

through exocytosis

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20
Q

What does the phagosome become

A

An antigen presenting cell

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21
Q

How do pathogens make you ill

A

by releasing toxins
killing cells
damaging cells

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22
Q

Define immunity

A

the ability of organisms to resist infections by protecting against disease-causing microoganisms that invade their bodies

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23
Q

Why are specific responses slower

A

they take time to multiply

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24
Q

What does humoral immunity regard

A

bodily fluids

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25
Q

Where do b lymphocytes mature

A

bone marrow

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26
Q

Where do t lymphocytes mature

A

thymus gland

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27
Q

What do b cells work on

A

bacteria

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28
Q

What do t cells work on

A

viruses and damaged cells

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29
Q

What are t cells involved in

A

cell mediated responses

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30
Q

Which responds to foreign material inside cells

A

T - inside cells

B - outside cells

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31
Q

What do damaged cells have

A

changed antigens

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32
Q

What t cell comes first after non specific response

A

T helper

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33
Q

What do t helper cells do

A

recognise non-self antigens such as antigen presenting cells
then divides by mitosis/clonal selection
stimulates other white blood cells

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34
Q

Which t cell is next

A

T killer

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35
Q

What does the t killer cell do

A

release chemical called perforin that creates holes in pathogen that leads to lysis

36
Q

Which t cell is next

A

T memory

37
Q

What does the t memory cell do

A

remember the pathogen so the second contact leads to a faster, more intense response

38
Q

What are antibodies synthesised by

A

they are proteins synthesised by B cells

39
Q

How many polypeptide chains are antibodies made up of

A

4

40
Q

What pairs of chains are there in an antibody

A

a pair of heavy chains and a pair of light chains

41
Q

What part of the antibody fits the antigen

A

the binding site

42
Q

What does this produce

A

an antigen-antibody complex

43
Q

Is the binding site on each antibody the same

A

no

44
Q

What is the binding site also called

A

variable region

45
Q

Is the rest of the antibody always the same

A

yes

46
Q

What are these areas also known as

A

the constant region

47
Q

What does the hinge region do

A

its flexible so that the antibody can bind to multiple antigens

48
Q

What are the bridges in the antibody made up of

A

strong disulfide bridges

49
Q

What is agglutination

A

when antibodies can cause microbes to stick together as they have two binding sites

50
Q

Why is agglutination helpful

A

makes it easier for phagocytes to engulf them

51
Q

How do antibodies stop toxins from affecting us

A

they bind to the toxins and neutralise them

52
Q

How do antibodies stop viruses

A

they bind to them so its stops them from being able to bind to receptors on cells and inhibiting cell processes

53
Q

Are b cells monoclonal or polyclonal

A

polyclonal

54
Q

What are the two cells that a b cell clones can develop into

A

plasma cells

memory cells

55
Q

What are plasma cells and what do they do

A

they secrete antibodies directly
immediate therefore primary immune response
short lives (few days)
a protein

56
Q

What are memory cells and what do they do

A

live for decades
do not produce antibodies
circulate in blood and tissue fluid
secondary immune response

57
Q

Explain how b cells work

A

surface antigens of pathogens taken up by b memory or phagocytes
present the antigens
T helper attach and activate b cells
divide by mitosis to give plasma cells
antibodies that are secreted destroy pathogens

58
Q

What is antigenic variability

A

when antigens have many different strains

59
Q

Monoclonal antibodies are cloned from what

A

single group of identical B plasma cells

60
Q

Name a biochemical test

A

pregnancy test

61
Q

Explain the 5 steps in producing monoclonal antibodies

A

1) inject mouse with antigen to lead to b plasma immune response
2) extract and identify the wanted b cells
3) fuse b plasma with cancer cells and mix with detergent to break lipids in cell membrane
4) grow hybridoma cells
5) extract the antibodies and humanize

62
Q

Give 2 uses on monoclonal antibodies

A

target cancer cells

combined with anti-cancer drugs (targeted drug therapy)

63
Q

What does attenuated mean

A

dead

64
Q

What is passive immunity

A

introduction of antibodies from an outside source

short term

65
Q

What is active immunity

A

stimulation of antibody production by an individuals own immune system
long term

66
Q

Name 3 features of a successful vaccination

A

economically available
few side effects
easy to transport

67
Q

Name 3 reasons why a vaccination may not work

A

some people have defective immune systems
people can develop the disease immediately
pathogen may mutate frequently

68
Q

Why is it hard to vaccinate for diseases such as cholera

A

mobile populations spread it so cant concentrate vaccinations in one area
antigenic variability

69
Q

Papers claiming things about vaccines must be what three things

A

peer-reviewed
non bias
large sample size

70
Q

What does HIV stand for

A

human immunodeficiency virus

71
Q

What happens in the acute phase

A

flu like symptoms
3-12 weeks after infection
rapid viral multiplication and loss of t helper

72
Q

What is the chronic phase also know as

A

latent phase

73
Q

How long can the chronic phase last

A

up to 20 years

74
Q

What does AIDS stand for

A

acquired immune deficiency virus

75
Q

What is the final stage called

A

Disease phase

76
Q

What are opportunistic infections

A

infections normally controlled in healthy people but potentially life threatening in HIV positive people

77
Q

What is the glycoprotein on HIV called

A

GP120

78
Q

What is GP120 complimentary to

A

CD4

79
Q

What categorizes HIV as a retro virus

A

it has reverse transcriptase

80
Q

What does reverse transcriptase do

A

catalyses the production of DNA and RNA

81
Q

How does HIV replicate

A

capsid binds to membrane and RNA and enzymes enter the cell
RT enzyme makes DNA and injects into hosts dna
new viral proteins made

82
Q

What does ELISA stand for

A

Enzyme linked immunosorbant assay

83
Q

Describe the 6 steps of the ELISA test

A

1) attach a specific antibody to a well
2) add blood sample - antigen antibody complex will form if infected
3) wash off excess blood
4) second antibody with enzyme attached is added creating an antibody-antigen-antibody-enzyme complex
5) wash off excess
6) add substrate that binds to enzyme and causes colour change

84
Q

Why do we wash off the excess

A

to remove the chance of false positives

85
Q

How do antibiotics work

A

inhibit cell wall synthesis and cause lysis by interfering with cross linkages in murein

A Level Biology (11 decks)

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