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HUBS 191 > Immunology 2 > Flashcards

Immunology 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is immunolgy?

A

The study of an organism’s defense system

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2
Q

What is the immune system composed of?

A

Organs (spleen)
Cells (T-cells)
Molecules (antibodies)

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3
Q

What are 4 microbes?

A

Viruses
bacteria
Fungi
Protozoa

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4
Q

What are the 5 organs of the immune system?

A

Tonsils
Thymus
Spleen
Bone marrow
Lymph nodes

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5
Q

What is a primary lymphoid organ?

A

Production of white blood cells

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6
Q

What is a secondary lymphoid organ?

A

Sites where immune responses are initiated

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7
Q

Describe the spleen in terms of the secondary lymphoid organs

A

Site of initiation for immune responses against blood-borne diseases

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8
Q

Describe bone marrow in terms of the primary lymphoid organs

A

Source of stem cells that develop into innate and adaptive immune responses

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9
Q

Describe the thymus in terms of primary lymphoid organs

A

School for T cells to learn not to react to the wrong cells

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10
Q

Describe the lymph nodes in terms of secondary lymphoid organs

A

Located along lymphatic vessels
Drains lymph fluid and filters from blood and tissues
Site of initiation of immune Reponses

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11
Q

What is the epidermis comprised of?

A

Dead cells, keratin, and phagocytic immune cells

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12
Q

What is the dermis comprised of?

A

Thick layer of connective tissue, collagen, blood vessels

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13
Q

What layer of the skin are the dendritic cells located?

A

Dermis

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14
Q

What is the purpose of a lysozyme?

A

Breaks down bacterial cells walls on the skin

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15
Q

Describe the skin’s chemical defense system

A

Pores which secrete:
- Lysozymes
- Sebum (low pH)
- Salt (hypertonic)

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16
Q

Where are the mucosal membranes?

A

Ocular (eye)
Respiratory (throat/lungs)
Oral (stomach)
Urogenital/rectal

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17
Q

What is a mucosal membrane?

A

Live layer of mucus producing cells

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18
Q

Describe the process of the mucociliary escalator

A

Dust and other particles get stuck on the mucus. Cilia move the mucus up the pharynx.

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19
Q

What are the chemical defenses of the mucosal surfaces?

A

Stomach
Gall Bladder
Intestine
Mucus
Defensins
Lysozymes

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20
Q

What is the function of the stomach as a chemical defense of mucosal surfaces?

A

Low pH

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21
Q

What is the function of the gall bladder as a chemical defense of mucosal surfaces?

A

Bile

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22
Q

What is the function of the intestine as a chemical defense of mucosal surfaces?

A

Digestive enzymes

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23
Q

What is the function of the lysozymes as a chemical defense of mucosal surfaces?

A

Tears, urine

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24
Q

Which has more layers, skin or the mucous membranes?

A

Skin

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25
Q

Are the cells of the mucous membranes loosely packed?

A

No

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26
Q

Is sebum present in mucous membranes?

A

No

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27
Q

Is cilia present in skin?

A

No

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28
Q

What are the two surface barriers of the immune system?

A

Skin and mucous membranes

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29
Q

What is the difference between innate and adaptive immunity?

A

Innate immunity is rapid, and because it is already in place, has limited specificities and no specific memory.
Adaptive immunity is variable, and is highly specific, it can ‘learn’ and therefore has a long-term memory

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30
Q

What parts of the immune system are part of the innate immunity?

A

Surface barriers
Internal defences

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31
Q

What are the internal defences?

A

Phagocytes
Natural Killer Cells
Inflammation
Antimicrobial properties
Fever

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32
Q

What parts of the immune system are part of the adaptive immunity?

A

Humoral Immunity
Cellular Immunity

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33
Q

What are the humoral immunities?

A

B cells

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34
Q

What are the cellular immunities?

A

T cells

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35
Q

What is blood composed of?

A

Plasma and Cells

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36
Q

What is plasma composed of?

A

Proteins
Other solutes
Water

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37
Q

What are the formed elements of blood?

A

Platelets
White blood cells
Red blood cells

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38
Q

What are the two types of blood cells derived from hematopoietic stem cells?

A

Myeloid
Lymphoid

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39
Q

Red blood cells are what kind of cell?

A

Myeloid

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40
Q

B and T cells are examples of what kind of cell?

A

Lymphoid
White blood cells

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41
Q

Granulocytes, monocytes, dendritic cells, and platelets are all types of what cell?

A

Myeloid
White blood cells (except platelets)

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42
Q

What is the purpose of a granulocyte in the blood?

A

Circulate in the blood and can move into tissue during inflammation

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43
Q

What is the function of a neutrophil

A

Highly phagocytic, numbers increase with infection

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44
Q

What is the purpose of granulocytes in tissue?

A

Mast cells
Line mucosal surfaces
Releases granules that attract white blood cells to areas of tissue damage
Are fast acting

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45
Q

What is the purpose of monocytes?

A

When they are present in the blood, they have low phagocytosis
When they enter tissues, they become highly phagotic macrophages

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46
Q

What is the purpose of a macrophage?

A

They are either sessile or migratory
- Phagocytosis
- Release of chemical messages
- Share info about microbes to T cells

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47
Q

What is the purpose of a dendritic cell in immune responses?

A

Links Innate and adaptive immune responses.
Phagocytic
Trigger adaptive immune responses

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48
Q

How do the cells of the immune system move around the body?

A

Carried in the blood and lymph, allowing them to leave and enter tissues.
Lymph in tissues collects and drains into lymph nodes

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49
Q

What is a PAMP?

A

Pathogen-associated molecular patterns.
Building blocks

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50
Q

What are the common building blocks of viruses?

A

Nucleic acids: ssRNA and dsDNA

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51
Q

What are the common building blocks of a bacteria cell wall?

A

Lipopolysaccharides (LPS)
Endotoxins
Lipoteichoic acid

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52
Q

What are the common building blocks of a bacteria flagellum?

A

Flagellin

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53
Q

What are the common building blocks of Bacterium nucleic acid?

A

Unmethylated CpG DNA

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54
Q

Describe pattern recognition receptors in a phagocytic cell

A

Receptors can either be on the outside or inside of a cell.
On the outside, they work to recognise bacterium and viruses on the cell membrane.
Within the cell, the phagolysosomes break down the bacteria and viruses into nucleic acids to recognise them.
All information is then sent to the nucleus of the cell

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55
Q

What is the purpose of fever/pyrexia?

A

Inhibits bacterial replication
Some features of the immune system work better at higher temperatures

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56
Q

What is the first step of the inflammatory response?

A

Chemical signals are released from resident cells to attract more cells to the injury site

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57
Q

What is the process of neutrophils in an inflammatory response?

A

Enter blood from bone marrow and cling to the capillary wall. They are then attracted to the site of the injury by the chemical trail.

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58
Q

What do the chemical signals from resident cells do during the inflammatory response?

A

Dilate blood vessels and make capillaries leakier, allowing neutrophils to get out.

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59
Q

True or false:
Myeloid cells are NOT phagocytic?

A

False

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60
Q

Describe the 5 stages of phagocytosis

A

Phagocyte recognises pathogen by adhering to it
Phagocytes form around the pathogen and forms a pseudopod, engulfing the particle and forming a phagosome.
Lysosomes fuse with the phagocytic cell.
Toxic compounds in the lysosome break down the pathogens.
Exocytosis sometimes removes the indigestable parts.

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61
Q

What happens when a lysosome and phagosome join?

A

A phagolysosome is formed because phagosomes do not have the right environment to break down and kill the pathogen or debris

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62
Q

Describe the killing and digestion of phagocytosed microbes

A

There is a low pH
Reactive hydrogen and nitric oxide intermediates
Enzymes

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63
Q

What are the 3 enzymes that break down pathogens in phagolysosomes?

A

Proteases
Lipases
Nucleases

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64
Q

Describe what happens during the complement cascade

A

A series of proteins that act in a sequence, allowing pathogens to be labelled and broken down

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65
Q

What are the 3 stages of the complement cascade?

A

Label pathogens
Recruit phagocytes
Destroy pathogens

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66
Q

Describe the process of opsonisation in the complement cascade

A

Pathogens are labelled so that they can bind to phagocytic cells and be uptaken during phagocytosis. This can either be through an antibody or a complement fragment of C3b.

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67
Q

Describe the process of chemotaxis during the complement cascade

A

Complement proteins are mediators and cause other phagocytes are recruited by sending out chemical signals, attracting them to the area of the injury. This is a process driven by C3a and C5a.

68
Q

Describe the process of lysis during the complement cascade

A

Pathogens are destroyed through a membrane attack. Pores are formed in bacterial cells which results in their death, this is driven by C9.

69
Q

What are the 3 complement pathways?

A

Classical
Alternative
Lectin

70
Q

Describe the classical complement pathway

A

Antibody first binds to the pathogen and then to the complement

71
Q

Describe the alternative complement pathway

A

Pathogen binds the complement to the pathogen component

72
Q

Describe the lectin complement pathway

A

Carbohydrate component of microbes binds to the complement

73
Q

What do all 3 complement pathways lead to?

A

C3 convertase amplification.

74
Q

What 3 processes are the outcome of the development of C3 convertase

A

Label, destroy, recruitment.

75
Q

What is the purpose of C3b?

A

Opsonisation

76
Q

What process is driven by C9?

A

Lysis

77
Q

What are C3a and C5a the drivers of?

A

Chemotaxis

78
Q

What is the purpose of mast cells during recruitment?

A

C3a and C5a degranulate mast cells and the granules act as inflammatory mediators which attract more phagocytes to the area of the injury.

79
Q

What are the 3 major cell communication methods?

A

-Cytokines or chemokines binding to receptors on membrane
-Cell surface receptors binding to surface-bound ligands
-Antigen presented to cell surface receptors

80
Q

What are the 3 main methods of immune cell communication?

A

Cell membrane binding
Receptors and ligands
Antigen-presenting

81
Q

Describe the process of chemical binding messengers

A

PAMP sends signals to the nucleus which can start or stop protein synthesis.
This is done by chemokine and cytokine

82
Q

What is the purpose of cytokine?

A

Cytokine sends signals to the nucleus via transmembrane receptors

83
Q

What is the purpose of chemokine?

A

Sends signals to the nucleus via transmembrane receptors and can also change how a cell moves.

84
Q

What is an antigen?

A

Anything that is recognized by the immune system

85
Q

Describe the process of activated dendritic cells communicating with T cells

A

Dendritic cells can make cytokines that bind with receptors on T cells
The surface bound receptors then join to ligands and present antigen to surface bound receptors

86
Q

What do receptors connect to?

A

Ligands

87
Q

What is an example of innate and adaptive immune responses interacting?

A

Activation of T cells by dendritic cells

88
Q

What is a MHC?

A

Major histocompatibility complex

89
Q

What is a TCR?

A

T-cell receptor

90
Q

What are the 2 typed of MHC?

A

MHC-I presents intracellular antigen
MHC-II presents extracellular antigen

91
Q

What MHC type is expressed on all nucleated cells?

A

MHC-I

92
Q

What MHC type is expressed only on antigen presenting cells

A

MHC-II

93
Q

What MHC type presents intracellular information?

A

MHC-I

94
Q

What type of molecule is an interleukin?

A

Cytokine

95
Q

What types of molecules stimulate cell migration?

A

Chemokines

96
Q

Are chemo/cytokines produced by innate or adaptive immune responses?

A

Both

97
Q

What do interleukins and interferons do?

A

Control the growth and activity of immune cells

98
Q

How can T cells help B cells?

A

Making cytokine that bind to receptors on B cell membranes
Have surface bound receptors that bind to B cell ligands

99
Q

What does the communication of T cells to B cells do?

A

Helps the B cell to make antibodies

100
Q

What blood cells are involved primarily in immunity?

A

White blood cells (leukocytes)

101
Q

What do dendritic cells do when they come across antigen/

A

Phagocytose the bacteria and then present parts to the spleen and lymph nodes.

102
Q

What do dendritic cells do with peptides?

A

They break down the bacteria into peptides and present them via MHC to T cells

103
Q

What do CD4 T cells do?

A

Help B cells make antibody

104
Q

What do CD8 T cells do?

A

BEcome cytotoxic and kill virus infected cells

105
Q

What is the purpose of antigen uptake in the innate immune response?

A

Clearance of pathogen

106
Q

What is the purpose of antigen uptake in the adaptive immune response?

A

Presentation to T cells

107
Q

What kind of immunity do invertebrates have?

A

Innate immunity

108
Q

What kind of immunity do vertebrates have?

A

Innate and adaptive

109
Q

How are endogenous antigens processed?

A

Antigens degraded into peptides in the cytoplasm by the proteasome, transported to the ER and loaded onto MHC-I

110
Q

How are exogenous antigens processed?

A

Degraded in the phagolysosome
Loaded onto the MHC-II using the phagolysosome

111
Q

How are antigenic proteins degraded into peptides?

A

Using a proteasome or an acidic phagolysosome

112
Q

What are T cells and how do they arise?

A

Lymphocytes that develop in the bone marrow and fully develop in the thymus

113
Q

What is the purpose of a T cell in adaptive immunity?

A

Recognise MHC and peptide complexes

114
Q

True or false, proteins are all different in T cells

A

False, but they have different receptors

115
Q

What are thymocytes?

A

Immature T-cells

116
Q

What do thymocytes do in the thymus?

A

Rearrange the variable parts of their TCR genes and then get selected for

117
Q

What are T cells that have not been activated by MHC called?

A

Naive

118
Q

What are activated T cells called?

A

Effector T cells

119
Q

What is the purpose of a CD4 helper cell? (3)

A

Recognises MHC-II/peptide
Helps CD8 T cell become cytotoxic
Helps B cell make antibody

120
Q

What is the purpose of the Cd8 T cell? (2)

A

Recognise MHC-I/peptide
Develops into a cytotoxic T cell and becomes a killing machine

121
Q

How do memory T cells work?

A

Memory CD4 or CD8 sit inside the body for long periods of time

122
Q

What is the purpose of memory T-cells?

A

Become effector cells much quicker than naive T cells

123
Q

What are the 4 main functions of B cells?

A

Lymphocytes that develop in bone marrow
Express unique antigen receptors
Plasma cells are activated B cells
Memory B cells provide memory

124
Q

What can B cells differentiate into?

A

PLasma cells

125
Q

Draw a diagram of a B cell receptor

A

(B cells and antibody)

126
Q

How many BCR are on 1 B cell?

A

Around 100,000

127
Q

What is BCR?

A

B cell receptor that binds antigen and activates B cell

128
Q

What is BCR anchored by?

A

Transmembrane domain and secreted by antibodies

129
Q

What are the 3 functions of antibody?

A

Neutralisation
Opsonisation
Complement activation

130
Q

Describe neutralisation

A

Effective neutralises toxins and stops them from latching onto our cells

131
Q

Describe opsinisation

A

To make tasty to phagocytes

132
Q

What is complement activation in terms of antibody?

A

Antibody complements through the classical pathway

133
Q

What are the yellow structures on a globular protein called?

A

Epitopes

134
Q

What is the purpose of an epitope?

A

Footprints where antibodies can bind

135
Q

What is native antigen?

A

The antigen does not need to be processed to a peptide

136
Q

What are the 5 classes of immunoglobulin?

A

IgG
IgA
IgM
IgE
IgD

137
Q

What is the distribution of IgG?

A

Abundant

138
Q

What is the and distribution of IgA?

A

Present in secretions
Monomeric in blood

139
Q

What is the function of IgG?

A

Opsinises/neutralises
Crosses placenta
Targets virus/bacteria

140
Q

What is the function of IgA?

A

Defense of mucous membranes
Confers passive immunity
Targets virus/bacteria

141
Q

What is passive immunity?

A

PAssing immunity on to infants via nursing

142
Q

What class of immunoglobulin has passive immunity?

A

IgA

143
Q

What is the distribution of IgM?

A

First class expressed after initial exposure
Expressed in B cells

144
Q

What is the function of IgM?

A

Activated complement
Targets extracellular bacteria
Acts as BCR

145
Q

What is the distribution of IgE?

A

Present in low concentrations

146
Q

What is the function og IgE?

A

Immunity to multicellular parasites
Allergic reactions

147
Q

What is the distribution of IgD?

A

Expressed on naive B cells

148
Q

What is the function of IgD?

A

Acts with IgM

149
Q

How long does the primary immune response take?

A

7-14 days

150
Q

How much antibody is produced during the primary immune response?

A

Relatively low

151
Q

What does the secondary immune response rely on?

A

B cells

152
Q

How fast is the secondary immune response?

A

2-3 days

153
Q

What is the main immunoglobulin produced in the secondary immune response?

A

IgG, switching to IgA and IgE

154
Q

What is the main immunoglobulin in the primary immune response?

A

IgM

155
Q

What is SCID?

A

Severe combined immunodeficiency

156
Q

How is SCID caused?

A

X-linked disease, patients lack functioning T and B cells

157
Q

How does HIV impact CD4 cells?

A

Kills them which means that the cells cannot provide help for antibody

158
Q

How does measles impact the immune system

A

Can erase immune system memory

159
Q

What is autoimmune disease mediated by?

A

Adaptive immune response

160
Q

What is immune tolerance?

A

Thymus deletes autoreactive T cells

161
Q

What can failures in immune tolerance called?

A

Autoimmunity

162
Q

How is arthritis caused?

A

When autoreactive T and B cells attack self antigens in the joints

163
Q

How is type I diabetes caused by the immune system?

A

Beta-cells attacked, meaning that insulin cannot be produced

164
Q

What is the effector response to an allergic reaction?

A

Allergen detected, T cells activate B cells which secrete IgE. The IgE binds to mast cells (FcR) causing degranulation and release of histamines

165
Q

What are the order of events in changes of anti-body structure?

A

Rearranged in bone marrow, and then constant region is switched during immune response (see errors in immunity)

166
Q

What order is the immunoglobulin class switch?

A

IgM/D - IgG - IgA - IgE

HUBS 191 (7 decks)

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