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HUBS 191 > Endocrine System 2 > Flashcards

Endocrine System 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is normal range?

A

Set of values for a regulated variable. These can fluctuate around a set point

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2
Q

What is a set point?

A

Physiological value of which a normal range functions

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3
Q

True or false? Individual normals tend to be wider than the range of value of the population.

A

False

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4
Q

Describe the negative feedback loop

A

The stimulus is detected by the sensors and this sends signals to the control centre which sends signals to the effectors to oppose the effect of the stimulus.

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5
Q

What is the role of the sensors?

A

Monitor the variable and detect changes

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6
Q

What is the role of the control centre?

A

Compare the variable’s changed values to the set point and sends signals to the effector.

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7
Q

What is the role of the effector?

A

Acts to oppose the stimulus

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8
Q

What is positive feedback?

A

Amplification. When a process is driven to completion.
If a variable goes up, the feedback makes it go up further.

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9
Q

What is the purpose of the endocrine system?

A

Releases hormones into the blood stream to bind to the membrane receptors of target cells.

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10
Q

What is the relative speed of the endocrine system?

A

Slow, but long lasting

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11
Q

What are hormones?

A

Chemicals that bind to specific target cells within the body

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12
Q

What are hormones made up of?

A

Amino acids or cholesterol

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13
Q

Where do hormones come from?q

A

Released by endocrine gland cells

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14
Q

How do hormones travel around the body?

A

In the bloodstream

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15
Q

How do water-soluble hormones work?

A

They do not require carrier proteins to travel in the blood but cannot cross cell membranes so they bind to receptors on the membrane of the target cell

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16
Q

How do lipid-soluble hormones work?

A

Require carrier proteins to travel in the blood but can diffuse easily across plasma membranes to =bind to the intracellular receptors inside of a target nucleus.

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17
Q

Are receptors hormone specific?

A

Yes

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18
Q

How do lipid soluble hormones produce a response?

A

Stimulate creation of new proteins, enzymes, to produce a response.

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19
Q

How do water soluble hormones produce a response?

A

Activate a second messenger system to produce a response

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20
Q

How do hormones know when to stop?

A

The body will break them down/ recycle them or they are excreted in sweat, urine, or faeces.

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21
Q

What is an example of a water-soluble hormone?

A

Adrenaline

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22
Q

What is an example of lipid-soluble hormone

A

Thyroid hormone and cortisol

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23
Q

How are lipid soluble hormones synthesised and stored?

A

Some are premade and some are made only when required

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24
Q

How are water soluble hormones synthesised and stored?

A

All are premade and stored

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25
What kind of response does a lipid soluble hormone evoke?
Cellular Response
26
Is the action mechanism for lipid soluble fast or slow?
Slow because protein synthesis takes a long time
27
How fast is the action mechanism for water-soluble hormones?
2nd messengers are premade so this is a fast response.
28
Describe the action mechanism for Water soluble hormone
Receptors activate G-proteins either inhibits or activates 2nd messengers which affect the actions of other proteins (ion channels or enzymes)
29
What are the 2 types of 2nd messengers?
cAMP and Ca ions.
30
What are the two glands involved in the regulation of plasma glucose and calcium concentration?
Parathyroid Glands, Thyroid gland, and the kidneys
31
Why does calcium need to be regulated?
Because there needs to be enough calcium in the blood for cells to use when they need it
32
How does the body use calcium?
Calcium is a second messenger which affects the actions of proteins and ion channels. Interacts with vesicles to facilitate release of neurotransmitter Interacts with myofilaments to form cross-bridges. All muscle requires Ca
33
Where is most calcium stored in the body?
In the bones, it is important for making bones hard
34
How does calcium enter the blood plasma?
Absorbed from the digestive tract? Resorbed from bone broken down by osteocytes Reabsorbed back into blood from kidneys
35
How does the calcium get removed from the blood?
Deposited back into the bone by osteoblasts Filtered out of the blood by the kidneys
36
Which organs/ glands are involved in Ca homeostasis?
Parathyroid Kidneys Thyroid gland Bones Digestive system?
37
How are the parathyroid glands involved in the regulation of Ca?
They secrete PTH (parathyroid hormone)
38
How many parathyroid glands are there?
4
39
How are kidneys involved in Ca homeostasis
Stimulated by PTH to secrete calcitriol Filter blood, reabsorbed and filters Ca into the blood
40
How is the thyroid gland involved in Ca homeostasis?
Secretes calcitonin (minor role)
41
How are bones involved in Ca homeostasis
Osteoblasts remove Ca to store as bone Osteoclasts release Ca by breaking down bone
42
What hormones stimulate the bone mechanisms in Ca homeostasis?
Parathyroid, calcitriol, and calcitonin
43
How is the digestive system involved in Ca homeostasis?
Absorbs calcium from digesting food
44
What hormone regulates the digestive system in Ca homeostasis?
Calcitriol
45
What are the sensors in Ca homeostasis?
Parathyroid glands, detect calcium levels in blood flowing through them.
46
What are the effectors for Ca homeostasis?
Bone, Kidneys (calcium reabsorbed), kidneys (vitamin D converted to calcitriol), and digestive tract
47
What is hypercalcemia?
High plasma Calcium levels
48
What are the two sensors for hypercalcemia?
Thyroid and parathyroid glands
49
What role does the thyroid have in correcting hypercalcemia
Releases calcitonin, which sends messages to the bones and the kidneys to perform their functions
50
What gland is involved in plasma glucose homeostasis
Pancreas
51
Why is blood glucose regulated?
Because it needs to be available if cells require it
52
What is the purpose of glucose in the body?
Used to make ATP and other substances essential for body function
53
How is glucose stored in the body?
Stored as glycogen
54
How does glucose enter the blood plasma?
Absorbed by the digestive tract. Released into the blood by the liver
55
How is glucose removed from blood plasma?
Removed from the blood by body cells Removed and stored in liver and skeletal muscle as glycogen Stored in adipose as fat
56
When is more glucose required in the body?
During periods of growth, stress, and exercise
57
Which glands involved in glucose homeostasis?
Pancreas, liver
58
How is the pancreas involved in glucose homeostasis?
Pancreatic cells secrete glucagon and insulin
59
What do alpha islet cells secrete?
Glucagon
60
What do beta islets cells secrete?
Insulin
61
Is glucose high or low in a fasting state?
Low
62
Describe what happens during hypoglycemia?
Alpha cells detect low glucose and release glucagon. This sends signals to the liver which can react in 3 different ways
63
What occurs during gluconeogenesis?
Glucose molecules are built and released into the blood
64
What occurs during glycogenolysis?
Break down of glycogen to release more glucose into the blood
65
What occurs during ketone synthesis?
More ketones are built to release into the blood
66
Describe what happens during hyperglycemia
Beta islet cells detect high glucose and releases insulin. All body cells will increase glucose intake Liver and muscle take excess glucose from the blood to store as glycogen Adipose cells store as fat
67
How does the hypothalamus connect to the anterior pituitary gland?
Releases chemicals into a blood portal to connect to the anterior pituitary gland cells.
68
How does the hypothalamus connect to the posterior pituitary gland?
Hypothalamic neurons have long axons that terminate in the posterior pituitary gland?
69
What are posterior pituitary glands made up of?
Hypothalamic neuron cell bodies.
70
Where are the posterior pituitary hormones stored?
Held in axon terminals until required to be released into the cell body when an AP causes them to become depolarised.
71
What are the two posterior pituitary hormones?
Oxycontin ADH (anti-diuretic)
72
WHat are the features of oxytocin?
Water-soluble Stimulates milk release during breastfeeding Stimulates contract of uterine muscles during childbirth
73
What are the features of ADH?
Water-soluble Stimulates kidney to reabsorb water when dehydrated Secreted during exercise and stress response
74
What are the hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland?
GH (growth hormone) Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) Adrenocorticotropin Hormone (ACTH)
75
What are the features of GH?
Water-soluble Stimulates liver, skeletal muscle and adipose for fuel metabolism Stimulates liver to release IGF for growth
76
What is the purpose of TSH?
Water-soluble Stimulates the thyroid to release thyroid hormones
77
What is the purpose of ACTH?
Water-soluble Stimulates the adrenal gland to release cortisol
78
What glands/organs are involved in cell metabolism?
Hypothalamus Pituitary Gland Thyroid Gland
79
Describe the general pattern of hormone release from the hypothalamus
Releases or inhibits hormone release to the pituitary gland. A 3rd hormone will then be sent to the target organ and effectors.
80
Describe the Hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis
Hypothalamus secretes (TRH) thyrotropin-releasing hormone Anterior pituitary gland secretes TSH Thyroid gland secretes thyroid hormones T3/4
81
What is the purpose of the Hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis
Stimulated by exercise and cold stress Increases basal metabolic rate and stimulates growth in fetus during early childhood Increases mental alertness
82
Where is the thyroid gland located?
Wraps around the trachea, below the adams apple. On the anterior and lateral surface of the trachea.
83
What hormones are produced by the thyroid?
Thyroid Hormones (T3 and 4) Calcitonin
84
Describe the synthesis and storage of thyroid hormones
Thyroglobulin (TGB) make in thyroid follicles Iodine enteral cells and reacts with tyrosine in TGB T3 and T4 detach from TGB as needed and travel in blood with a carrier protein
85
What is TGB made up of?
Thyroglobulin contains tyrosine (Y)
86
Describe target cell activation by thyroid hormone
Made and stored until required. Travels bound to a carrier protein Bind to receptor within the nucleus Actives genes to form different proteins
87
What is BSR?
Basal metabolic rate is the energy required for basic functions such as blood circulation and respiration
88
How do thyroid hormones increase BMR?
Thermogenesis Oxygen consumption Fat and protein breakdown
89
What glands/ organs are involved in cell metabolism and growth?
Hypothalamus Pituitary Gland
90
When are the highest GH concentrations?
When asleep and in puberty
91
What is a direct effect of GH?
Fuel mobilisation.
92
Describe fuel mobilisation in muscle, liver, and adipose
In muscle it inhibits uptake of glucose and stimulates protein synthesis In the liver it stimulates glucose synthesis In adipose it increases fat breakdown
93
What is an indirect effect of GH?
Growth, IGF is released from the liver which stimulates growth in bones
94
Describe the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Liver axis
Hypothalamus either secretes GHRH (GH releasing hormone) or GHIH (GH inhibiting) The anterior pituitary gland then secretes subsequent amounts of GH This causes the liver to secretes insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1), which causes growth of cells GH also causes fuel mobilsation in liver, muscle, and fat
95
What are the two types of hormones that the hypothalamic neurons secrete?
Releasing or inhibiting hormones
96
Describe the general releasing pattern of hormones from the hypothalamus
Hypothalamus Anterior Pituitary Gland Target Endocrine Organ Effectors
97
When is cortisol the highest?
In the morning as it fluctuates in a circadian rhythm
98
Where is cortisol secreted from?
Outer layer of adrenal glands
99
What is secreted from the outer layer of the adrenal glands?
Aldosterone and cortisol
100
Where are the adrenal glands located?
on top of the kidneys
101
Where are the catecholamines secreted from?
Medulla of the adrenal glands
102
What kind of protein is cortisol?
Lipid soluble
103
What are the normal effects of cortisol?
Increases blood glucose by stimulating - pancreas - liover - skeletal muscles - adipose Maintains blood pressure Suppresses inflammation
104
What hormone does the hypothalamus secrete for the Pituitary gland?
Corticotropin-releasing (CRH)
105
Describe the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
Hypothalamus secretes CRH to the anterior pituitary which causes it to secrete ACTH (Adrenocorticotropin) to the adrenal gland which releases cortisol
106
What are the target effectors of the adrenal gland (cortisol)?
Liver, muscle, adipose Pancreas Cardiovascular system Immune system
107
What are the 3 phases of stress response?
Alarm Stage Resistance Stage Exhaustion stage
108
Describe the alarm stage of the stress response and what happens to the body
Increased oxygen intake Increased oxygen and glucose circulated to the brain and skeletal muscle Reduce activation of unnecessary body function (e.g. saliva)
109
Describe how stress triggers the sympathetic nervous system
AP sent from emotion centre of the brain Hypothalamic neurons control centre for sympathetic nervous system Stress triggers the hypothalamus to activate the sympathetic nervous system
110
Describe the release of catecholamine
Sympathetic nerves stimulate the adrenal gland (medulla) and catecholamine is released into the blood stream to target organs
111
What are the corticolamines?
Adrenaline and noradrenaline
112
What type of hormone is a catecholamine?
Water-soluble
113
What happens to the lungs due to catecholamine?
Rate of breathing increases as airway dialates
114
What happens to the heart due to catecholamine?
Heart rate and strength of contraction
115
What happens to the blood vessels due to catecholamine?
Blood pressure (vasoconstriction)
116
What happens to the liver due to catecholamine?
Glycogen breakdown (glycogenolysis) Glucose synthesis (gluconeogenesis)
117
What happens to the skeletal muscle due to catecholamine?
Glycogen breakdown (glycogenolysis)
118
What happens to the adipose due to catecholamine?
Fat break down
119
What happens during the resistance phase of stress?
Body working to resist the effect of stress, stress lasts more than a few hours and glycogen stores have been used up so lipid and protein stored must be mobilised
120
What is the most dominant hormone of the resistance phase?
Cortisol
121
Describe the process of fuel mobilisation into blood during the resistance phase
Cortisol is released Glucagon is released from pancreas Adrenaline is released GH is released from pituitary
122
Describe the process of increased blood pressure during the resistance phase
Cortisol is released ADH is released Aldosterone is released from adrenal cortex
123
Describe the process of suppressed inflamation during the resistance phase
Cortisol is released
124
How do blood vessels vasoconstrict?
ASH stimulates constriction. ADH stimulates the kidney to reabsorb water into the plasma Aldosterone stimulates the kidneys more Na into the plasma.
125
Does vasoconstriction cause blood pressure to increase or decrease?
Increase
126
Describe the exhaustion phase of stress
Lasts for weeks to years. ' Lipid reserves used up and organs begin to get damaged as structural proteins begin to get broken down
127
What are the two things that can go wrong with hormone secretion?
Hyposecretion Hypersecretion
128
What can go wrong with hormone signalling?
Hyposensitivity
129
What disease is caused by the hyposecretion of cortisol?
Addison's Disease
130
Which disease is caused by the hypersecretion of cortisol?
Cushing's disease
131
What are the symptoms of Addison's disease?
Low blood pressure fatigue Loss of appetite
132
What is a cause of Addison's Disease?
Autoimmune disease that attacks the adrenal cortex
133
What is a common cause of Cushing's disease?
Adrenal cortex tumor Taking glucocorticoid medication for long periods of time
134
What are the symptoms of Cushing's disease?
High blood pressure Thinning of arms and legs and weight gain in torso Moon face, buffalo hump Stretch marks and easy bruising
135
What disease is caused by the hyposecretion of growth hormone?
Dwarfism
136
What disease is caused by the hypersecretion of growth hormone?
Gigantism Acromegaly
137
What is a common cause of dwarfism?
Genetic mutation or inheritance
138
What is a common cause of gigantism?
Pituitary gland tumor in childhood
139
What is a common cause of acromegaly?
Pituitary gland tumor in early adulthood
140
What is a symptom of acromegaly?
Large and irregularly shaped extremities and facial features
141
What diseases are called by the hyposecretion of thyroid hormone?
Hypothyroidism Simple goitre
142
What is a cause of infantile hypothyroidism?
Missing or poorly developed thyroid Poorly functioning anterior pituitary Lack of iodine in mother's diet
143
What are the symptoms of infantile hypothyroidism?
Low metabolic rate Delayed growth Swollen tongue and around eyes
144
What is a cause of adult hypothyroidism?
Autoimmune disease Iodine deficiency Removal of thyroid
145
What is a symptom of adult hypothyoidism?
Low metabolic rate Tiredness Cold sensitivity Depression
146
What disease is caused by hypersecretion of thyroid hormone?
Grave's disease
147
What is a cause of Graves disease?
Autoimmune disorder
148
What are some symptoms of Graves disease?
High metabolic rate Increased heart rate Sensitive to heat Nervousness Bulging eyes Goitre
149
What disease is caused by hypersecretion of parathyroid hormone?
Hyperparathyroidism
150
What disease is caused hyposecretion of parathyroid hormone?
Hypothyroidism
151
What is a cause for hyperthyroidism?
Parathyroid tumor
152
What are the common causes of hypothyroidism?
Damaged parathyroid gland due to genetic or autoimmune disease
153
What are the symptoms of hyperthyroidism?
Soft fragile bones Kidney stones various problems related to calcium's many functions
154
What are the symptoms of hypothyroidism?
Muscle tetanus Seizures Decreased cardiac function
155
What disease is caused by the hyposecretion of insulin?
Type I diabetes Mellitus
156
What is a common cause of Type I diabetes Mellitus?
Beta islet cells in pancreas destroyed by virus and autoimmune disease
157
What are some symptoms of Type I diabetes Mellitus?
Polyuria (excessive urine production) Polydipsia (excessive thirst) Cardiovascular issues
158
What disease is caused by hyposensitivity and hyposecretion of insulin?
Type II diabetes
159
What disease is caused by insulin hyposensitivity?
insulin resistance
160
What is a cause of insulin resistance?
Chronically high insulin levels

HUBS 191 (7 decks)

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