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HUBS 191 > Endocrine System 2 > Flashcards

Endocrine System 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is normal range?

A

Set of values for a regulated variable. These can fluctuate around a set point

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2
Q

What is a set point?

A

Physiological value of which a normal range functions

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3
Q

True or false? Individual normals tend to be wider than the range of value of the population.

A

False

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4
Q

Describe the negative feedback loop

A

The stimulus is detected by the sensors and this sends signals to the control centre which sends signals to the effectors to oppose the effect of the stimulus.

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5
Q

What is the role of the sensors?

A

Monitor the variable and detect changes

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6
Q

What is the role of the control centre?

A

Compare the variable’s changed values to the set point and sends signals to the effector.

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7
Q

What is the role of the effector?

A

Acts to oppose the stimulus

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8
Q

What is positive feedback?

A

Amplification. When a process is driven to completion.
If a variable goes up, the feedback makes it go up further.

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9
Q

What is the purpose of the endocrine system?

A

Releases hormones into the blood stream to bind to the membrane receptors of target cells.

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10
Q

What is the relative speed of the endocrine system?

A

Slow, but long lasting

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11
Q

What are hormones?

A

Chemicals that bind to specific target cells within the body

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12
Q

What are hormones made up of?

A

Amino acids or cholesterol

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13
Q

Where do hormones come from?q

A

Released by endocrine gland cells

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14
Q

How do hormones travel around the body?

A

In the bloodstream

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15
Q

How do water-soluble hormones work?

A

They do not require carrier proteins to travel in the blood but cannot cross cell membranes so they bind to receptors on the membrane of the target cell

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16
Q

How do lipid-soluble hormones work?

A

Require carrier proteins to travel in the blood but can diffuse easily across plasma membranes to =bind to the intracellular receptors inside of a target nucleus.

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17
Q

Are receptors hormone specific?

A

Yes

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18
Q

How do lipid soluble hormones produce a response?

A

Stimulate creation of new proteins, enzymes, to produce a response.

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19
Q

How do water soluble hormones produce a response?

A

Activate a second messenger system to produce a response

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20
Q

How do hormones know when to stop?

A

The body will break them down/ recycle them or they are excreted in sweat, urine, or faeces.

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21
Q

What is an example of a water-soluble hormone?

A

Adrenaline

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22
Q

What is an example of lipid-soluble hormone

A

Thyroid hormone and cortisol

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23
Q

How are lipid soluble hormones synthesised and stored?

A

Some are premade and some are made only when required

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24
Q

How are water soluble hormones synthesised and stored?

A

All are premade and stored

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25
Q

What kind of response does a lipid soluble hormone evoke?

A

Cellular Response

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26
Q

Is the action mechanism for lipid soluble fast or slow?

A

Slow because protein synthesis takes a long time

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27
Q

How fast is the action mechanism for water-soluble hormones?

A

2nd messengers are premade so this is a fast response.

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28
Q

Describe the action mechanism for Water soluble hormone

A

Receptors activate G-proteins either inhibits or activates 2nd messengers which affect the actions of other proteins (ion channels or enzymes)

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29
Q

What are the 2 types of 2nd messengers?

A

cAMP and Ca ions.

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30
Q

What are the two glands involved in the regulation of plasma glucose and calcium concentration?

A

Parathyroid Glands, Thyroid gland, and the kidneys

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31
Q

Why does calcium need to be regulated?

A

Because there needs to be enough calcium in the blood for cells to use when they need it

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32
Q

How does the body use calcium?

A

Calcium is a second messenger which affects the actions of proteins and ion channels.
Interacts with vesicles to facilitate release of neurotransmitter
Interacts with myofilaments to form cross-bridges.
All muscle requires Ca

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33
Q

Where is most calcium stored in the body?

A

In the bones, it is important for making bones hard

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34
Q

How does calcium enter the blood plasma?

A

Absorbed from the digestive tract?
Resorbed from bone broken down by osteocytes
Reabsorbed back into blood from kidneys

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35
Q

How does the calcium get removed from the blood?

A

Deposited back into the bone by osteoblasts
Filtered out of the blood by the kidneys

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36
Q

Which organs/ glands are involved in Ca homeostasis?

A

Parathyroid
Kidneys
Thyroid gland
Bones
Digestive system?

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37
Q

How are the parathyroid glands involved in the regulation of Ca?

A

They secrete PTH (parathyroid hormone)

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38
Q

How many parathyroid glands are there?

A

4

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39
Q

How are kidneys involved in Ca homeostasis

A

Stimulated by PTH to secrete calcitriol
Filter blood, reabsorbed and filters Ca into the blood

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40
Q

How is the thyroid gland involved in Ca homeostasis?

A

Secretes calcitonin (minor role)

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41
Q

How are bones involved in Ca homeostasis

A

Osteoblasts remove Ca to store as bone
Osteoclasts release Ca by breaking down bone

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42
Q

What hormones stimulate the bone mechanisms in Ca homeostasis?

A

Parathyroid, calcitriol, and calcitonin

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43
Q

How is the digestive system involved in Ca homeostasis?

A

Absorbs calcium from digesting food

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44
Q

What hormone regulates the digestive system in Ca homeostasis?

A

Calcitriol

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45
Q

What are the sensors in Ca homeostasis?

A

Parathyroid glands, detect calcium levels in blood flowing through them.

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46
Q

What are the effectors for Ca homeostasis?

A

Bone, Kidneys (calcium reabsorbed), kidneys (vitamin D converted to calcitriol), and digestive tract

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47
Q

What is hypercalcemia?

A

High plasma Calcium levels

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48
Q

What are the two sensors for hypercalcemia?

A

Thyroid and parathyroid glands

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49
Q

What role does the thyroid have in correcting hypercalcemia

A

Releases calcitonin, which sends messages to the bones and the kidneys to perform their functions

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50
Q

What gland is involved in plasma glucose homeostasis

A

Pancreas

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51
Q

Why is blood glucose regulated?

A

Because it needs to be available if cells require it

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52
Q

What is the purpose of glucose in the body?

A

Used to make ATP and other substances essential for body function

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53
Q

How is glucose stored in the body?

A

Stored as glycogen

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54
Q

How does glucose enter the blood plasma?

A

Absorbed by the digestive tract.
Released into the blood by the liver

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55
Q

How is glucose removed from blood plasma?

A

Removed from the blood by body cells
Removed and stored in liver and skeletal muscle as glycogen
Stored in adipose as fat

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56
Q

When is more glucose required in the body?

A

During periods of growth, stress, and exercise

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57
Q

Which glands involved in glucose homeostasis?

A

Pancreas, liver

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58
Q

How is the pancreas involved in glucose homeostasis?

A

Pancreatic cells secrete glucagon and insulin

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59
Q

What do alpha islet cells secrete?

A

Glucagon

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60
Q

What do beta islets cells secrete?

A

Insulin

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61
Q

Is glucose high or low in a fasting state?

A

Low

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62
Q

Describe what happens during hypoglycemia?

A

Alpha cells detect low glucose and release glucagon. This sends signals to the liver which can react in 3 different ways

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63
Q

What occurs during gluconeogenesis?

A

Glucose molecules are built and released into the blood

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64
Q

What occurs during glycogenolysis?

A

Break down of glycogen to release more glucose into the blood

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65
Q

What occurs during ketone synthesis?

A

More ketones are built to release into the blood

66
Q

Describe what happens during hyperglycemia

A

Beta islet cells detect high glucose and releases insulin.
All body cells will increase glucose intake
Liver and muscle take excess glucose from the blood to store as glycogen
Adipose cells store as fat

67
Q

How does the hypothalamus connect to the anterior pituitary gland?

A

Releases chemicals into a blood portal to connect to the anterior pituitary gland cells.

68
Q

How does the hypothalamus connect to the posterior pituitary gland?

A

Hypothalamic neurons have long axons that terminate in the posterior pituitary gland?

69
Q

What are posterior pituitary glands made up of?

A

Hypothalamic neuron cell bodies.

70
Q

Where are the posterior pituitary hormones stored?

A

Held in axon terminals until required to be released into the cell body when an AP causes them to become depolarised.

71
Q

What are the two posterior pituitary hormones?

A

Oxycontin
ADH (anti-diuretic)

72
Q

WHat are the features of oxytocin?

A

Water-soluble
Stimulates milk release during breastfeeding
Stimulates contract of uterine muscles during childbirth

73
Q

What are the features of ADH?

A

Water-soluble
Stimulates kidney to reabsorb water when dehydrated
Secreted during exercise and stress response

74
Q

What are the hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland?

A

GH (growth hormone)
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
Adrenocorticotropin Hormone (ACTH)

75
Q

What are the features of GH?

A

Water-soluble
Stimulates liver, skeletal muscle and adipose for fuel metabolism
Stimulates liver to release IGF for growth

76
Q

What is the purpose of TSH?

A

Water-soluble
Stimulates the thyroid to release thyroid hormones

77
Q

What is the purpose of ACTH?

A

Water-soluble
Stimulates the adrenal gland to release cortisol

78
Q

What glands/organs are involved in cell metabolism?

A

Hypothalamus
Pituitary Gland
Thyroid Gland

79
Q

Describe the general pattern of hormone release from the hypothalamus

A

Releases or inhibits hormone release to the pituitary gland. A 3rd hormone will then be sent to the target organ and effectors.

80
Q

Describe the Hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis

A

Hypothalamus secretes (TRH) thyrotropin-releasing hormone
Anterior pituitary gland secretes TSH
Thyroid gland secretes thyroid hormones T3/4

81
Q

What is the purpose of the Hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis

A

Stimulated by exercise and cold stress
Increases basal metabolic rate and stimulates growth in fetus during early childhood
Increases mental alertness

82
Q

Where is the thyroid gland located?

A

Wraps around the trachea, below the adams apple.
On the anterior and lateral surface of the trachea.

83
Q

What hormones are produced by the thyroid?

A

Thyroid Hormones (T3 and 4)
Calcitonin

84
Q

Describe the synthesis and storage of thyroid hormones

A

Thyroglobulin (TGB) make in thyroid follicles
Iodine enteral cells and reacts with tyrosine in TGB
T3 and T4 detach from TGB as needed and travel in blood with a carrier protein

85
Q

What is TGB made up of?

A

Thyroglobulin contains tyrosine (Y)

86
Q

Describe target cell activation by thyroid hormone

A

Made and stored until required.
Travels bound to a carrier protein
Bind to receptor within the nucleus
Actives genes to form different proteins

87
Q

What is BSR?

A

Basal metabolic rate is the energy required for basic functions such as blood circulation and respiration

88
Q

How do thyroid hormones increase BMR?

A

Thermogenesis
Oxygen consumption
Fat and protein breakdown

89
Q

What glands/ organs are involved in cell metabolism and growth?

A

Hypothalamus
Pituitary Gland

90
Q

When are the highest GH concentrations?

A

When asleep and in puberty

91
Q

What is a direct effect of GH?

A

Fuel mobilisation.

92
Q

Describe fuel mobilisation in muscle, liver, and adipose

A

In muscle it inhibits uptake of glucose and stimulates protein synthesis
In the liver it stimulates glucose synthesis
In adipose it increases fat breakdown

93
Q

What is an indirect effect of GH?

A

Growth, IGF is released from the liver which stimulates growth in bones

94
Q

Describe the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Liver axis

A

Hypothalamus either secretes GHRH (GH releasing hormone) or GHIH (GH inhibiting)
The anterior pituitary gland then secretes subsequent amounts of GH
This causes the liver to secretes insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1), which causes growth of cells
GH also causes fuel mobilsation in liver, muscle, and fat

95
Q

What are the two types of hormones that the hypothalamic neurons secrete?

A

Releasing or inhibiting hormones

96
Q

Describe the general releasing pattern of hormones from the hypothalamus

A

Hypothalamus
Anterior Pituitary Gland
Target Endocrine Organ
Effectors

97
Q

When is cortisol the highest?

A

In the morning as it fluctuates in a circadian rhythm

98
Q

Where is cortisol secreted from?

A

Outer layer of adrenal glands

99
Q

What is secreted from the outer layer of the adrenal glands?

A

Aldosterone and cortisol

100
Q

Where are the adrenal glands located?

A

on top of the kidneys

101
Q

Where are the catecholamines secreted from?

A

Medulla of the adrenal glands

102
Q

What kind of protein is cortisol?

A

Lipid soluble

103
Q

What are the normal effects of cortisol?

A

Increases blood glucose by stimulating
- pancreas
- liover
- skeletal muscles
- adipose
Maintains blood pressure
Suppresses inflammation

104
Q

What hormone does the hypothalamus secrete for the Pituitary gland?

A

Corticotropin-releasing (CRH)

105
Q

Describe the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis

A

Hypothalamus secretes CRH to the anterior pituitary which causes it to secrete ACTH (Adrenocorticotropin) to the adrenal gland which releases cortisol

106
Q

What are the target effectors of the adrenal gland (cortisol)?

A

Liver, muscle, adipose
Pancreas
Cardiovascular system
Immune system

107
Q

What are the 3 phases of stress response?

A

Alarm Stage
Resistance Stage
Exhaustion stage

108
Q

Describe the alarm stage of the stress response and what happens to the body

A

Increased oxygen intake
Increased oxygen and glucose circulated to the brain and skeletal muscle
Reduce activation of unnecessary body function (e.g. saliva)

109
Q

Describe how stress triggers the sympathetic nervous system

A

AP sent from emotion centre of the brain
Hypothalamic neurons control centre for sympathetic nervous system
Stress triggers the hypothalamus to activate the sympathetic nervous system

110
Q

Describe the release of catecholamine

A

Sympathetic nerves stimulate the adrenal gland (medulla) and catecholamine is released into the blood stream to target organs

111
Q

What are the corticolamines?

A

Adrenaline and noradrenaline

112
Q

What type of hormone is a catecholamine?

A

Water-soluble

113
Q

What happens to the lungs due to catecholamine?

A

Rate of breathing increases as airway dialates

114
Q

What happens to the heart due to catecholamine?

A

Heart rate and strength of contraction

115
Q

What happens to the blood vessels due to catecholamine?

A

Blood pressure (vasoconstriction)

116
Q

What happens to the liver due to catecholamine?

A

Glycogen breakdown (glycogenolysis)
Glucose synthesis (gluconeogenesis)

117
Q

What happens to the skeletal muscle due to catecholamine?

A

Glycogen breakdown (glycogenolysis)

118
Q

What happens to the adipose due to catecholamine?

A

Fat break down

119
Q

What happens during the resistance phase of stress?

A

Body working to resist the effect of stress, stress lasts more than a few hours and glycogen stores have been used up so lipid and protein stored must be mobilised

120
Q

What is the most dominant hormone of the resistance phase?

A

Cortisol

121
Q

Describe the process of fuel mobilisation into blood during the resistance phase

A

Cortisol is released
Glucagon is released from pancreas
Adrenaline is released
GH is released from pituitary

122
Q

Describe the process of increased blood pressure during the resistance phase

A

Cortisol is released
ADH is released
Aldosterone is released from adrenal cortex

123
Q

Describe the process of suppressed inflamation during the resistance phase

A

Cortisol is released

124
Q

How do blood vessels vasoconstrict?

A

ASH stimulates constriction.
ADH stimulates the kidney to reabsorb water into the plasma
Aldosterone stimulates the kidneys more Na into the plasma.

125
Q

Does vasoconstriction cause blood pressure to increase or decrease?

A

Increase

126
Q

Describe the exhaustion phase of stress

A

Lasts for weeks to years. ‘
Lipid reserves used up and organs begin to get damaged as structural proteins begin to get broken down

127
Q

What are the two things that can go wrong with hormone secretion?

A

Hyposecretion
Hypersecretion

128
Q

What can go wrong with hormone signalling?

A

Hyposensitivity

129
Q

What disease is caused by the hyposecretion of cortisol?

A

Addison’s Disease

130
Q

Which disease is caused by the hypersecretion of cortisol?

A

Cushing’s disease

131
Q

What are the symptoms of Addison’s disease?

A

Low blood pressure
fatigue
Loss of appetite

132
Q

What is a cause of Addison’s Disease?

A

Autoimmune disease that attacks the adrenal cortex

133
Q

What is a common cause of Cushing’s disease?

A

Adrenal cortex tumor
Taking glucocorticoid medication for long periods of time

134
Q

What are the symptoms of Cushing’s disease?

A

High blood pressure
Thinning of arms and legs and weight gain in torso
Moon face, buffalo hump
Stretch marks and easy bruising

135
Q

What disease is caused by the hyposecretion of growth hormone?

A

Dwarfism

136
Q

What disease is caused by the hypersecretion of growth hormone?

A

Gigantism
Acromegaly

137
Q

What is a common cause of dwarfism?

A

Genetic mutation or inheritance

138
Q

What is a common cause of gigantism?

A

Pituitary gland tumor in childhood

139
Q

What is a common cause of acromegaly?

A

Pituitary gland tumor in early adulthood

140
Q

What is a symptom of acromegaly?

A

Large and irregularly shaped extremities and facial features

141
Q

What diseases are called by the hyposecretion of thyroid hormone?

A

Hypothyroidism
Simple goitre

142
Q

What is a cause of infantile hypothyroidism?

A

Missing or poorly developed thyroid
Poorly functioning anterior pituitary
Lack of iodine in mother’s diet

143
Q

What are the symptoms of infantile hypothyroidism?

A

Low metabolic rate
Delayed growth
Swollen tongue and around eyes

144
Q

What is a cause of adult hypothyroidism?

A

Autoimmune disease
Iodine deficiency
Removal of thyroid

145
Q

What is a symptom of adult hypothyoidism?

A

Low metabolic rate
Tiredness
Cold sensitivity
Depression

146
Q

What disease is caused by hypersecretion of thyroid hormone?

A

Grave’s disease

147
Q

What is a cause of Graves disease?

A

Autoimmune disorder

148
Q

What are some symptoms of Graves disease?

A

High metabolic rate
Increased heart rate
Sensitive to heat
Nervousness
Bulging eyes
Goitre

149
Q

What disease is caused by hypersecretion of parathyroid hormone?

A

Hyperparathyroidism

150
Q

What disease is caused hyposecretion of parathyroid hormone?

A

Hypothyroidism

151
Q

What is a cause for hyperthyroidism?

A

Parathyroid tumor

152
Q

What are the common causes of hypothyroidism?

A

Damaged parathyroid gland due to genetic or autoimmune disease

153
Q

What are the symptoms of hyperthyroidism?

A

Soft fragile bones
Kidney stones
various problems related to calcium’s many functions

154
Q

What are the symptoms of hypothyroidism?

A

Muscle tetanus
Seizures
Decreased cardiac function

155
Q

What disease is caused by the hyposecretion of insulin?

A

Type I diabetes Mellitus

156
Q

What is a common cause of Type I diabetes Mellitus?

A

Beta islet cells in pancreas destroyed by virus and autoimmune disease

157
Q

What are some symptoms of Type I diabetes Mellitus?

A

Polyuria (excessive urine production)
Polydipsia (excessive thirst)
Cardiovascular issues

158
Q

What disease is caused by hyposensitivity and hyposecretion of insulin?

A

Type II diabetes

159
Q

What disease is caused by insulin hyposensitivity?

A

insulin resistance

160
Q

What is a cause of insulin resistance?

A

Chronically high insulin levels

HUBS 191 (7 decks)

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